Constructing Arguments

An argument consists of four parts: Claim, Reasons, Support, and Assumptions.

1. Claim

The claim is the opinion, the statement under dispute, the focus of the argument, or the proposition with which an author wishes readers to agree.

Examples:

Second-hand smoke causes lung cancer.
Airplane exhaust discharged over reservoirs leads to pollution of the water supply.
There is enough mass in the universe to prevent it from expanding forever.
Beijing is the capital of China --- Fact, not a claim.

In academic writing, the claim of an argument is often the thesis, and this thesis usually comes near the beginning of the paper, at the end of or following some sort of introduction. But not always...sometimes the claim comes in the middle or at the end, or not explicitly at all, or as a question.

To argue or pursuade or justify, a claim is not enough. You must have...

2. Reasons

Reason tell why the writer/speaker is making the claim. Arguing is rational pursuasion, based on reasons. To be an argument, a claim must be supported by one or more reasons. It's the "because..." that turns a statement from a claim into an argument: "You should wear a heavy coat today, because it will probably snow."

Avoid non-sequiturs; that is, arguments in which the claim does not follow clearly from the reasons: "You should by our product, because we are showing you a picture of a beach."

Even if you accept the reasons presented, there may be gaps you have to fill in before accepting the claim. The statements that fill in these gaps are called...

Assumptions/Warrants

The assumption or warrant is an inference that is taken for granted. It connects the support with the claim. Assumptions/warrants are usually implied, rather than stated.

- Claim: Bill Clinton was a good president.
- Reason: He was skilled at foreign policy.
- Assumption/warrant: Any president who is skilled at foreign policy is a good president.
- Claim: You should visit Brussels
- Reason: Brussels has the world's best chocolate.
- Assumption/warrant: You should visit a place that has the best chocolate.

You might not accept the reasons and assumptions unless they are accompanied by...

Support

Support is the evidence used to strengthen and back the claim and the reasons, to establish their soundness. Support can include data and logical reasoning.

Claim: You should visit Brussels
Reason: Brussels has the world's best chocolate.
Assumption/warrant: You should visit a place that has the best chocolate.
Support: An international panel of tasters has awarded top honors to Brussells' chocolatiers for 25 years running.

Academic Arguments

Academic arguments are much more deliberative than other types of arguments. Therefore, in examining an argument, we emphasize support, justification, and evidence. An "argument" exists when there are conflicting claims or assertions and the parties involved attempt to resolve the conflict through and appeal to reasons. The basic frame of an argument , therefore, is an appeal to reasons.

Keep in mind that different disciplines call for different types of arguments; there is no one type that is specifically "academic." The rules for what constitutes good reasons (i.e., evidence) varies across academic disciplines.

Sciences: The sciences rely on empirical evidence; studies are often superseded, extended, and modified.
Humanities: The Humanities rely primarily on texts (which may not be verbal) and commentary on those texts as primary evidence to support a claim; commentaries from the past are not necessarily invalidated by more recent commentaries.

adapted from materials by Herman Fong