@device[postscript]
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@pageheading[]
@pagefooting[]
@begin[format]
@tabclear[]
@tabset[.5 in, 1 in, 1.5 in]

@subheading[Users and Customizable Software:]
@subheading[A Co-Adaptive Phenomenon]
@bar[]

@\Wendy E. Mackay

@\21 May 1990

@newpage
@subheading[Outline]
@bar[]

@\Research Problem

@\Background:  The Information Lens Study

@\Theoretical Model

@\Lens revisited

@\Design of the Athena Study

@\Research Results

@\Theoretical Implications

@\Practical Implications

@newpage
@subheading[Research Problem]
@bar[]

@\How do users interact with information technology 
@\@\designed to be customized by users?

@\Examples of customization

@\Theoretical issues
@\@\Technological imperative
@\@\Organizational imperative

@\Practical issues

@newpage
@subheading[Why study customization?]
@bar[]

@\More designers are adding customization features

@\Complex systems require more customization

@\Few people have studied customization

@\May provide insights about learning and innovation

@\Customization artifacts can be traced

@newpage
@subheading[Background:  The Information Lens Study]
@bar[]

@\What is the Information Lens?

@\The Lens study

@\Issues raised by the study

@newpage
@subheading[Multiple Rulesets]
@bar[]

@begin[center]
@begin[box]
@begin[format, size 10]
@tabclear[]
@tabset[.2in, .7in, 1in, 1.5in, 2.2in, 2.5in, 3in, 3.5in]

@b[@\User  @\Total V.2  @\Sorting  @\Total V.3  @\Sorting]
@b[@\      @\Rulesets   @\Strategy @\Rulesets   @\Strategy]
@bar[]

@\@p[A]    @\@\1        @\Pre-sort    @\@\2  @\Both     @comment[Bauer]

@\@p[B]    @\@\1        @\Pre-sort    @\@\2  @\Both     @comment[Johnson]

@\@p[C]    @\@\1        @\Pre-sort    @\@\2  @\Both     @comment[Bobrow]

@\@p[D]    @\@\1        @\Pre-sort    @\@\2  @\Both     @comment[Card]

@\@p[E]    @\@\1        @\Post-sort   @\@\2  @\Both     @comment[Foster]

@\@p[F]    @\@\1        @\Post-sort   @\@\3  @\Both     @comment[Finholt]

@\@p[G]    @\@\1        @\Post-sort   @\@\2  @\Both     @comment[Lanning]

@\@p[H]    @\@\1        @\Post-sort   @\@\1  @\Pre-sort @comment[Suchman]

@\@p[I]    @\@\1        @\Pre-sort    @\@\1  @\Pre-sort @comment[Huberman]

@\@p[J]    @\@\1        @\Post-sort   @\@\1  @\Post-sort@comment[Tatar]
@bar[]

@\         @\@\50% Pre-sort           @\20%  Pre-sort
@\         @\@\50% Post-sort          @\10%  Post-sort
@\         @\@\    @\                 @\@\70%  Both
@end[format]
@end[box]
@end[center]

@newpage
@subheading[Theoretical Models]
@bar[]

@\"Technological Imperative" Model

@\"Organizational Imperative" Model

@\Alternative views

@\Structurational Model (Orlikowski, 1989)

@newpage
@subheading[Structurational Model]
@bar[]

@begin[center]
@graphic(postscript=/mit/mackay/thesis/FIG.model.orl.simple,
magnify=1.5, BoundingBox = "2.5inch, 6inch, 6.5inch, 8.75inch ")
@end[center]

@newpage
@subheading[Modified Structurational Model]
@bar[]

@begin[center]
@graphic(postscript=/mit/mackay/thesis/FIG.model,
magnify=.90, BoundingBox = ".5inch, 4.8inch, 7inch, 10.5inch ")
@end[center]

@newpage
@subheading[Lens revisited]
@bar[]

@begin[center]
@graphic(postscript=/mit/mackay/thesis/FIG.model.lens,
magnify=.90, BoundingBox = ".5inch, 5.5inch, 7.5inch, 10.5inch")
@end[center]

@newpage
@subheading[The Athena Study]
@bar[]

@\How do users customize Unix software?

@\@\Aliases:  synonyms, shorthands, multiple 
@\@\@\commands, options

@\@\Automatic screen setups

@\@\Mouse and key bindings

@\@\Zephyr message locations

@\@\Backgrounds and screen savers

@\@\"Attached" file systems

@\@\"dot" files for environment and applications

@newpage
@subheading[The Athena Study]
@bar[]

@\Some definitions

@\@\Normal use

@\@\Customization

@\@\Programming

@newpage
@subheading[Research Site:  MIT's Project Athena]
@bar[]

@\$100 million joint project by DEC and IBM

@\Over 1000 workstations in a distributed network

@\Over 11,000 active users

@\Source of X Window System

@\Unix Operating System
@end[format]

@newpage
@subheading[Study participants]
@bar[]

@begin[format, size 16]	
@tabclear[]
@tabset[.5in, 1in, 1.35in, 4.25in, 4.75in, 5.25in]
@\51 volunteers from the 85-member Athena staff
@\@\   @\@\High@\Med.@\Low
@\@\10 @\Managers@\3@\2@\5 
@\@\@ @ 5@\Secretaries@\0@\0@\5
@\@\12 @\Systems Programmers@\12@\0@\0
@\@\@ @ 8@\Applications Programmers@\2@\3@\3
@\@\16 @\Other staff@\2@\4@\10

@\Environment changes
@\@\Reorganization  
@\@\Office change
@\@\System upgrade
@end[format]

@newpage
@begin[format]
@tabclear[]
@tabset[.5 in, 1 in, 1.5 in]
@subheading[Data collected]
@bar[]

@\Background information: Technical skills, job description

@\Open-ended interviews on customization: strategies, 
@\@\triggers and barriers, decision process

@\Questionnaires: customization activity, information sources,
@\@\communication network, borrowing and sharing files

@\Listings of customization files:  names, size, dates

@\Records of open files, aliases, screen layouts

@\Additional information: informal discussions, staff mailing list, 
@\@\OLC logs, organization charts, office changes
@end[format]

@newpage
@subheading[Structurational Model:  Athena Study]
@bar[]

@begin[center]
@graphic(postscript=/mit/mackay/thesis/FIG.model.athena,
magnify=.90, BoundingBox = ".5inch, 6.5inch, 8.5inch, 10.5inch")
@end[center]

@newpage
@subheading[Arrow E: Users Influence Group Norms]
@subheading[(Pre-Reorganization)]
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@begin[center]
@graphic(postscript=/mit/mackay/thesis/FIG.net.preorg.lines,
magnify=.90, BoundingBox = ".2inch, 4.5inch, 8inch, 10.5inch ")
@end[center]

@newpage
@subheading[Arrow E:  Users Influence Group Norms]
@subheading[(Post-Reorganization)]
@bar[]

@begin[center]
@graphic(postscript=/mit/mackay/thesis/FIG.net.postorg.lines,
magnify=.90, BoundingBox = ".2inch, 4.5inch, 8inch, 10.5inch ")
@end[center]

@newpage
@subheading[Arrow E:  Users Influence Group Norms]
@subheading[Translators Appear for Each Group]
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@begin[center]
@begin[box]
@begin[format, size 12]
@tabclear[]
@tabset[.5in, 2.25in, 3in, 3.75in, 4.5in, 5.25in, 6in]

@b[@\Group		@\Translators]
@b[@\			@\Earlier @\Current]
	
@bar[]		 
	
Adminstration		@\E2	@\A10, A3
	
Video group		@\D3	@\D4
	
Operations (HW)		@\D1	@\E13
	
Operations (SW)		@\E13	@\E13
	
User Services		@\E16	@\E16
	
Education Initiatives	@\E1	@\E1
	
Systems Development	@\--	@\--
	
All			@\E16,A3@\E16,A3
@end[format]
@end[box]
@end[center]

@newpage
@subheading[Arrow E:  Users Influence Group Norms]
@subheading[Different Methods of Influence]
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@begin[center]
@begin[box]
@begin[format, size 12]	
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@tabset[.5in, 2in, 2.75in, 3.5in, 4in, 4.75in, 5.5in, 6in]

@b[  @\		    @\Trans- @\Open   @\Lend]   
@b[N @\Job category @\lators @\Files  @\Files]
			     
@bar[]			     
								     
10  @\Managers	    @\20%    @\20%    @\1.4    
							      
5   @\Secretaries   @\0%     @\0%     @\0.6    
							      
12  @\Sys. Program. @\8%     @\67%    @\2.3    
							      
8   @\App. Program. @\38%    @\63%    @\3.8    
							      
16  @\Other staff   @\25%    @\50%    @\2.1    
							      
51  @\Totals:	    @\20%    @\45%    @\2.0    
@end[format]
@end[box]
@end[center]

@newpage
@subheading[Structurational Model:  Athena Study]
@bar[]

@begin[center]
@graphic(postscript=/mit/mackay/thesis/FIG.model.athena,
magnify=.90, BoundingBox = ".5inch, 6.5inch, 8.5inch, 10.5inch")
@end[center]

@newpage
@subheading[Arrow C:  Other People Influence Users]
@subheading[How do users get information?]
@bar[]

@begin[center]
@begin[box]
@begin[format, size 12]	
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@tabset[.5in, 2in, 2.75in, 3.5in, 4in, 4.75in, 5.5in, 6in]

@b[  @\		    @\Borrow @\Same    @\    @\Officemate's]  
@b[N @\Job category @\Files  @\Screen  @\N   @\Files]
			              
@bar[]			              
		                                  	         
10  @\Managers	    @\2.6    @\80%@+[*]@\5   @\40%
		                                       
5   @\Secretaries   @\3.2    @\80%     @\2   @\100%
		                                       
12  @\Sys. Program. @\1.8    @\92%@+[*]@\12  @\42%
		                                       
8   @\App. Program. @\1.9    @\50%@+[*]@\7   @\57%
		                                       
16  @\Other staff   @\2.3    @\81%@+[*]@\11  @\91%
		                                       
51  @\Totals:	    @\2.3    @\78%     @\37  @\62%

    @\		    @\       @\@+[*]Video group
@end[format]
@end[box]
@end[center]

@newpage
@subheading[Arrow C:  Other People Influence Users]
@subheading[Where users get information from?]
@bar[]

@begin[center]
@begin[box]
@begin[format, size 12]
@tabclear[]
@tabset[.5in, 2in, 2.75in, 3.5in, 4.25in, 5in, 5.75in, 6in]
@b[		   @\Ask   @\Copy &@\manual@\Athena@\Read   @\Write]
@b[N   @\Job	   @\person@\exper.@\pages @\doc's @\source @\own]
   
10  @\Manager	   @\2.5   @\2.5   @\2.4   @\1.9   @\0.7    @\0.8   
   
5   @\Secretary	   @\2.6   @\2.2   @\1.2   @\1.8   @\0      @\0   
   
12  @\Sys. Program @\1.8   @\2.1   @\2.4   @\1.3   @\2.3    @\2.0   
   
8   @\App. Program.@\2.4   @\2.4   @\2.4   @\1.6   @\1.1    @\1.1   
   
16  @\Other staff  @\2.7   @\2.2   @\2.1   @\1.8   @\1.0    @\1.1   

@bar[]							       
   
51  @\Total 	   @\2.4   @\2.3   @\2.2   @\1.7   @\1.2    @\1.1   
   
@\Scale:	   @\0 = never use	@\2 = use sometimes
		   @\1 = use rarely	@\3 = use often
@end[format]
@end[box]
@end[center]

@newpage
@subheading[Structurational Model:  Athena Study]
@bar[]

@begin[center]
@graphic(postscript=/mit/mackay/thesis/FIG.model.athena,
magnify=.90, BoundingBox = ".5inch, 6.5inch, 8.5inch, 10.5inch")
@end[center]

@newpage
@subheading[Arrow A:  Users Influence Technology]
@bar[]

@begin[center]
@begin[box]
@begin[format, size 12]	
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@tabset[.5in, 2in, 2.75in, 3.5in, 4in, 4.75in, 5.5in, 6in]

@b[  @\		    @\Use    @\Forget   @\    @\Retrofit @\Refuse  @\Stay]
@b[N @\Job category @\Aliases@\Aliases  @\N   @\WM       @\Change  @\Same]

@bar[]
		    		                  	         
10  @\Managers	    @\60%    @\33%	@\8   @\63%	 @\0%      @\63%
		    		                     
5   @\Secretaries   @\0%     @\n/a	@\1   @\0%	 @\0%      @\0%
		    		                     
12  @\Sys. Program. @\67%    @\38%	@\11  @\55%	 @\27%     @\82%
		    		                     
8   @\App. Program. @\88%    @\14%	@\7   @\71%	 @\14%     @\85%
		    		                     
16  @\Other staff   @\68%    @\45%	@\13  @\62%	 @\23%     @\85%
		    		                     
51  @\Totals:	    @\63%    @\34%	@\40  @\60%	 @\18%     @\78%
@end[format]
@end[box]
@end[center]

@newpage
@subheading[Structurational Model:  Athena Study]
@bar[]

@begin[center]
@graphic(postscript=/mit/mackay/thesis/FIG.model.athena,
magnify=.90, BoundingBox = ".5inch, 6.5inch, 8.5inch, 10.5inch")
@end[center]

@newpage
@subheading[Arrow B:  Technology Influences Users]
@bar[]

@begin[center]
@begin[box]
@begin[format, size 12]	
@tabclear[]
@tabset[.5in, 2in, 2.5in, 3in, 3.5in, 4in, 4.5in, 5in]

@b[  @\		    @\Learn  @\   @\Previous]
@b[N @\Job category @\New WM @\N  @\System]
@bar[]		                                     	         
		                                     	         
8   @\Managers	    @\38%    @\10 @\40%
		                                        
1   @\Secretaries   @\100%   @\5  @\0%
		                                        
11  @\Sys. Program. @\18%    @\12 @\67%
		                                        
7   @\App. Program. @\14%    @\8  @\50%
		                                        
13  @\Other staff   @\15%    @\16 @\16%
		                                        
40  @\Totals:	    @\23%    @\51 @\37%

    @\		    @\     @\@\7 operating systems
    @\		    @\     @\@\5 applications
@end[format]
@end[box]
@end[center]

@newpage
@begin[format]
@tabclear[]
@tabset[.5 in, 1 in, 1.5 in]

@subheading[Summary of Results]
@bar[]

@\Decision process: 
@\@\Users weigh perceived costs and benefits

@\Sharing: 
@\@\Customization is a social activity

@\Encoding: 
@\@\Users encode repeated patterns of use

@\Context: 
@\@\Users impose work context through customization

@\Reflection: 
@\@\External events help users reflect on own use

@\Stability: 
@\@\Users strive to maintain stability

@newpage
@subheading[Decision Process]
@bar[]

@begin[center]
@graphic(postscript=/mit/mackay/thesis/FIG.process,
magnify=.90, BoundingBox = "1.5inch, 2.5inch, 5.5inch, 9inch ")
@end[center]

@newpage

@subheading[Limitations]
@bar[]

@\Relevance of studying these groups
@\@\Lead users 
@\@\Patterns in other organizations
@\@\Rate of technological change

@\Limitations of the data
@\@\Snapshots, not continuous record
@\@\Individual decision process
@\@\Performance measures

@newpage

@subheading[Theoretical Implications]
@bar[]

@\Evidence for examining customizable software as a 
@\@\co-adaptive phenomenon

@\Support for the structurational model

@\Elaboration of the structurational model
@\@\Additional factors:  external events, translators
@\@\Mechanism: individual behavior affects group norms
@\@\Decision process by individuals

@\Implications about the nature of customization
@\@\Co-adaptive phenomenon
@\@\Social phenomenon
@\@\Relevant to other technologies
@\@\Relevant to learning and innovation

@newpage

@subheading[Practical Implications]
@bar[]

@\Software development process:

@\@\Users redefine the use of the software
@\@\Version 1.0 is just the beginning
@\@\Include users throughout

@\Software design:

@\@\Initial default values are critical
@\@\Allow users to express work context
@\@\Provide reflection about use (users/translators)
@\@\Make sharing possible

@\Organizational issues:

@\@\Learning software as an investment
@\@\Recognize and support the role of sharing
@\@\Assume users will retrofit: maximize the choice
@\@\Provide group opportunities to reflect on use

@newpage

@subheading[Directions for Future Research]
@bar[]

@\In-depth examination of customization decisions

@\Translators:  effect on organization's performance?

@\Prevalence of co-adaptive phenomena

@\Build and test reflective software

@end[format]

@begin[comment]
@subheading[Sharing of customization files]
@subheading[Encode repeated patterns of use]
@subheading[Impose external context through customization]
@subheading[External events help users reflect on own use]
@subheading[Users strive to maintain common patterns of use]
@subheading[Decision Process for Customization]

@subheading[Decision Process]
@bar[]

@begin[center]
@graphic(postscript=/mit/mackay/thesis/FIG.trans.process,
magnify=.90, BoundingBox = "1.5inch, 2.5inch, 5.5inch, 9inch ")
@end[center]

@end[comment]

