% Copyright 1987, 1988, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996,
% 1997, 1999
% MIT Student Information Processing Board (SIPB)
%
% The use and redistribution of this Inessential Guide to LaTeX
% is hereby granted with the following restrictions:
% * Bugs should be reported back to the SIPB
%	(send email to sipb@mit.edu)
% * The use of any portion of this guide must be credited to the SIPB
% * The use of this document in its entirety (except for local changes
%	and additions) must maintain the credits, name, and logo of the
%	SIPB and the Inessential Guide to LaTeX.

\documentclass[11pt,twoside]{report}
\usepackage{ifthen}
\usepackage{fancyheadings}
\usepackage{latexsym}
% The styles in the above line require doing the following:
%       add -f newtex
% The ifthen macro is for ``page layout parameters'' figure.
% 9-13-99 - is this still true since 2e is the athena default?

% Revision notes
%\def\$#1${{#1}}  % Kluge: collect RCS revision info without $...$
%\xdef\manvers{\$Revision: 4.3 $}  % For use in headers, footers too
\def\revision{Revision: 4.3}
% see below for version numbering schemes
% I'm going to do something more normal (maybe).  version 4 b/c it's been
% updated  for latex 2e
% The version number is currently converging towards 3.396 K, the
% critical temperature for superconductivity of indium.  This is
% mostly just a bad pun on TeX version numbering scheme (3.0, 3.1, 3.14,
% 3.141, 3.1415...)  --bert 16mar1995
% grr.  Some more digits, please, next time... or maybe we should just
% converge on 2e (5.4365636569...) so that this document had
% *something* to do with LaTeX 2e.  In the meantime, these changes are 
% worth about .001 anyway... [eichin:19990912T2352-04]

% Note: the RCS version is now ``version.incremental'' so if you begin
% revision 5, you should ``ci -u -r5.0 guide.tex'' the first time you
% check in the document; afterwards, just ``ci -u guide.tex''.

% Revision 3 - [eichin:19910828.0352EST]
% Revision 2 - Chee Chew 10/22/90
% Revision 1 - R. French 10/3/89
% Project begun {4/25/87}

% Trademarks and copyright symbols
\def\trademark{\texttrademark}
\def\SCRIBE{Scribe\trademark}
\def\PS{PostScript}
\def\DPS{Display PostScript}
\def\TEX{\TeX}
\def\LATEX{\LaTeX}
\def\SIPB{SIPB}
%\def\LW{LaserWriter}
%\def\LPS{Digital LPS40}
%\def\LN03R{Digital LN03R}

% Standard settings for this document - guidemacros.sty is not used.
\setlength{\evensidemargin}{0pt}
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\setlength{\topmargin}{-24pt}
\setlength{\headheight}{14pt}
\setlength{\headsep}{24pt}
\setlength{\textwidth}{6.5in}
\setlength{\textheight}{8.5in}
\setlength{\parskip}{.1in}	

% Set headers and footers.
\pagestyle{fancyplain}  % {plain} won't DTRT on the first pages of TOC and LOF
\lhead{}
\chead{\fancyplain{}{\large Inessential \LaTeX{} }}
\rhead{}
% Quoting ~jemorris/Template/Template/LaTeX/Styles/fancyheadings.sty:
%%% the newtex fancyheadings gratuitiously makes some things that should
%%% be dimens (and are in the non-newtex one) into macros, thus breaking
%%% things that try to set them as dimens.  rather than explicitly using
%%% the non-newtex version in our style files, we interept the \input's
%%% here, suck in the newtex version (so that if there are other problems
%%% they'll become apparent), and apply a patch.  this way if and when
%%% the newtex one gets fixed, we can just blow away our intercepting
%%% LaTeX/Styles/newtex.sty and everything will automatically use the
%%% newtex one directly with no further fuss.
%%% bug report was sent to bug-newtex 12/20/1998.
% Thus, this three-line atrocity.
\newdimen\headrulewidthdimen
\headrulewidthdimen=\headrulewidth
\def\headrulewidth{\headrulewidthdimen}
\lfoot[\revision]{MIT SIPB}
\rfoot[MIT SIPB]{\revision}

% Set parameters for float (figure) placement.
\setcounter{totalnumber}{666}
\setcounter{bottomnumber}{666}
\def\bottomfraction{.8}

% Section modifications
\setcounter{secnumdepth}{3}	% subsubsections are numbered
\setcounter{tocdepth}{3}	% subsubsections are listed in toc
\renewcommand{\thesection}{\arabic{section}}
\renewcommand{\thesubsection}{\thesection.\arabic{subsection}}
\renewcommand{\thefigure}{\arabic{figure}}
%\renewcommand{\theequation}{\arabic{equation}}

% Special text style commands
\newcommand{\prompt}{\textbf{ athena\texttt{\%}} }      % Athena prompt
\newcommand{\user}[1]{``\textbf{ #1}''}             % Style for user input

% Describe title page

% Allow symbol footnote for title
\def\thefootnote{\fnsymbol{footnote}}

% PSbox allows a PostScript figure to be inserted into the file.
% The special command contains the name of the file
% 	(which is considered by LaTeX to be of zero width and height).
% The hspace command specifies the width of the image.
% The rule command specifies the height of the image.
% The mbox command allocates a rectangular box of the appropriate size.
% PSbox is a fragile command.
\newcommand{\PSbox}[3]{\mbox{\special{psfile=#1}\hspace{#2}\rule{0pt}{#3}}}

\title {% Sipb Owl Logo
	\vspace{-1in}
	\PSbox{cover-owl.PS}{200pt}{200pt}
	\vspace{1in}\\
	{\huge Inessential \LaTeX{} %
	\thanks{Copyright \copyright\ 1987--1999 Student Information
		Processing Board of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology}}
	\\ {\small (\revision)}
%	\\ {\Huge\bf BLEED ON ME}
}

\author{\large\textbf{The Student Information Processing Board}}

% End of Preamble

\begin{document}

% Title page
\maketitle
\def\thefootnote{\arabic{footnote}} % Return to arabic footnotes
\newpage


% Table of Contents
\pagenumbering{roman}
\tableofcontents
\newpage

% List of Figures
\listoffigures
\newpage
\pagenumbering{arabic}

\section{Introduction}
\subsection{What is \LaTeX{} ?}

\LaTeX{} is a complex text-processing system often recommended by the
\SIPB\ as an alternative to Frame Technology's FrameMaker\trademark\ and
the Andrew Consortium's EZ\null.  We believe both \LaTeX{} and
FrameMaker to be more powerful and more flexible than EZ.\footnote{EZ is
improving, and may someday be good enough for thesis work---but \LaTeX{}
has actually been used to write textbooks, and is a standard system in
many parts of the typesetting industry (along with \TeX{}.)}  Choosing
between \LaTeX{} and FrameMaker may be a tougher decision, since each
has its strengths and weaknesses.  Some people may prefer FrameMaker's
graphical user interface to the typesetting commands of \LaTeX{}.
FrameMaker makes it easier to arrange your text on the page if you want
more than simple one- or two-column layout.  However, we believe that
\LaTeX{} is simpler to master, and more practical for formatting
technical papers.  It won't ever erase your document when you aren't
looking\footnote{FrameMaker will sometimes ``lose'' documents due to
bugs.  EZ \emph{regularly} has problems with large documents.  Thesis
writers beware\ldots} and leave you stranded.  Also, \LaTeX{}'s range
of document styles and formatting options is currently wider than
FrameMaker's.  It has a very powerful math typesetting facility, which
makes including mathematical formulas in your document easy, and it is
capable of generating documents in foreign languages complete with
accents and non-English characters, such as the German {\ss} character.
%Additionally, while FrameMaker is somewhat new to Athena and even EZ is
%still somewhat unstable on Athena, 
%\LaTeX{} use at Athena was introduced
%by the \SIPB\ was officially adopted by Athena in the summer of 1989)

% There is a special version of \TeX capable of typesetting Hebrew---
% right to left.

There are \LaTeX{}  manuals available for use in the \SIPB\ office, and
you're welcome to drop by the office with a question.  There are also
manuals available for short-time loan from the OLC\footnote{On-Line
Consultants} office (N42) and some available for withdrawal from
the MIT Libraries.

If you have any comments, additions or corrections to this manual,
please send them to \verb+sipb@mit.edu+ or drop by the \SIPB\ office
(W20-557) and let us know.

\subsection{\LaTeX{}  on Athena}

You can run \LaTeX{}  on any Athena-ized workstation.  Instructions for
setting up your environment and running \LaTeX{}  on these platforms
are given in section \ref{sec:processing} of this document.  To get
more information on using other software available on the Athena
workstations, see the \emph{Getting Started on Athena\/} document
available from MIT Copy Tech, and the \emph{Inessential Guide to
Athena\/} available from the \SIPB\ office (W20-557).

Versions of \LaTeX{}  can be obtained many other types of machines.
However, many \LaTeX{}  distributions for popular platforms are
commercial packages, and their features and usage may differ.
Hopefully, your \LaTeX{}  package will come with some instructions for
setting it up and running it.

The version of \LaTeX{} described in this document is version
\LaTeXe{}, which is the version currently supported by Athena and
\SIPB\null.  Version 2.09 is still available in the
\verb+newtex+ locker under the name \verb+latex209+.  Section 11 of this
document describes the differences between the two versions.

\section{Getting Started}

This section describes how to typeset a simple paper in the standard
way for processing by \LaTeX{}.  All of the information here is also
presented elsewhere in this document, but with a lot more detail; think
of this section as ``the short form'' to using \LaTeX{}.

The first thing you need to do is to create your \LaTeX{} source file.
This file contains all the text for your paper as well as \LaTeX{} 
commands (to be described shortly).  You can use any editor you wish
to create the file; documentation on how to use text editors is
available from Athena.  Emacs includes special code set up to make
using \LaTeX{}  easier, and is a good first choice.  You can name your
\LaTeX{}  file anything you wish; the only requirement is that it end
with the four characters \verb+.tex+.

The general format of a \LaTeX{}  file is shown in the following example.

\begin{verbatim}
\documentclass{article}
\usepackage{doublespace}
\usepackage{fullpage}

\title{A Sample Paper}
\author{Melissa I. Thompson}
\date{\today}

\begin{document}

\maketitle

It was a dark and stormy night, and all of the Athena fileservers had
crashed.  Poor me, I had to write a paper for one of my HASS-D
classes.

Luckily, I was able to use a wonderful text formatting program called
\LaTeX{}, and everything worked out fine.
\end{document}
\end{verbatim}

\noindent Here is a description of each part.

\begin{itemize}

\item The first line of every \LaTeX{}  file contains a
\verb+\documentclass+ command.  This command tells \LaTeX{}  the
general style of your document as well as the style ``options'' you wish
to use.  The word in between curly braces (\verb+{+ and \verb+}+) is the
main style.  You can specify options for the style in square brackets before
the main style.  For example, \verb+\documentclass[12pt]{article}+ would 
use article document class in 12 point type.

\item The \verb+usepackage+ commands specifies additional packages or
styles to use.  For example, the \verb+doublespace+ package tells \LaTeX{}
to doublespace your document, and the \verb+fullpage+ option says to set
the margins so you have one inch of blank space on all sides.  You can
supply options to these packages as well in the same way that you did to 
the main package (ie, in square brackets). 

\item The \verb+\title+, \verb+\author+, and \verb+\date+ commands are
used to specify the title, author and creation date of the document.
The default date is \verb+\today+ (meaning that you don't need to give
the \verb+\date+ command if you just want to use the current date).

\item The \verb+\begin{document}+ line marks the beginning of the
`main' part of the document.  The section before this line is called
the \emph{preamble}.  More on this later.

\item The \verb+\maketitle+ line tells \LaTeX{}  to insert a title page
in the beginning of your document.  The data from each of the
\verb+\title+, \verb+author+, and \verb+\date+ commands is used here.

\item \verb+\LaTeX{}+ is a special command in \LaTeX{}, used to
represent the appropriate magic so that you see ``\LaTeX{}'' instead
of ``LaTeX{}''.

\item The \verb+\end{document}+ line marks the end of the main part of
the document.  In \LaTeX{}, something between
\verb+\begin{+\emph{foo}\verb+}+ and \verb+\end{+\emph{foo}\verb+}+ is
said to be in the \emph{foo} environment (more on environments later).

%%% ALERT: MISSING STUFF
%%% The explanations aren't complete.  The real fix for this is to
%%% coalesce (and/or rewrite) 2 and 3 into one chapter.
%%%
%%% I made a rough attempt to fill them in.  Merging 2 and 3 may still
%%% be `The Right Thing'.
%%% [yandros:95/05/02-04:53:48-EST]

\end{itemize}

\section{Creating your Document}

For \LaTeX{}  to know that you are writing a document, you have to give
it some information first.  This section describes what you need to
have in a file to run it through \LaTeX{}.

\subsection{In the Beginning\ldots}
A typical file, such as a term paper, will begin like this:

\begin{verbatim}
\documentclass{article}

\begin{document}
\end{verbatim}

\noindent This tells \LaTeX{}  the following things:

\begin{itemize}
\item This example is an \verb+article+.  The article style may be used
for any kind of standard paper.  An \verb+article+ is shorter than a
\verb+report+.\footnote{This \LaTeX{}  guide is a \texttt{report}.}  The
\verb+book+ style also exists.  It is meant for real books.  These
options control section headings and tables of contents and other
things.

\item The main text is printed in a 10 point font by
default.  There are several text sizes available: 10,
11, and 12 point.  This document is printed in 11 point.  The various
\emph{type sizes} within a document are relative to this base size, as
described in subsection~\ref{subsec:typ}.  If no base size is specified,
10 point is assumed.  To change to a base size of 11 point or 12 point,
change the document class with an optional parameter, placed inside
square braces immediately after the command name, like this:

\begin{verbatim}
\documentclass[11pt]{article}
\end{verbatim}

\item There are many other optional parameters which can be used, some
of which will be mentioned later.  They are all entered inside the
square brackets and are separated by commas, with no spaces in
between.  For example,
\begin{verbatim}
\documentclass[twoside,11pt]{report}
\usepackage{doublespace}
\end{verbatim}

sets the document up as an 11-point, double-spaced, double-sided
report.  

%Most of these options cause corresponding \LaTeX{} 
%\verb+style files+ to be loaded (twoside.sty, doublespace.sty, etc.),
%but some of them are built in to the document type (the \texttt{11pt}
%option is done this way).  You generally won't care about this unless
%you mistype one of the options or some optional package isn't
%available with the current configuration (described later).

\item The space between the \verb+\documentclass+ and the
\verb+\begin{document}+ commands is called the \emph{header area\/} or
\emph{preamble}.  Various control parameters, such as the layout of the
title page (if you want one) go here.  The actual text of your
document begins after the \verb+\begin{document}+.
\end{itemize}

% \subsubsection{Optional Parameters}  

% There are many optional parameters which may be included in the
% \verb+\documentstyle+ line, as in the example above.  These options
% can be combined.  Some of the common ones are:\footnote{Those marked
% with a ${}^{\dagger}$ require a special \verb+TEXINPUTS+ environment
% variable discussed in Section~\ref{texinputs}.}

There are many packages and options which may be included with the
\verb+\usepackage+ line or as an option to \verb+documentclass+
. Packages can also take options, which are specified in brackets before
the package name.  You can include multiple packages with a single
\verb+\usepackage+ command.  For example,
\verb+\usepackage[red,blue]{foo,bar}+ would include the packages
\verb+foo+ and \verb+bar+, giving the \verb+red+ and \verb+blue+ options
to both. Some of the common packages and options are:\footnote{Those
marked with a ${}^{\dagger}$ require a special \texttt{TEXINPUTS}
environment variable discussed in Section~\ref{texinputs}.}


\begin{description}

\item[doublespace] (package) Causes the document to be doublespaced and defines
the \verb+\doublespace+ and the \verb+\singlespace+ commands for
changing document spacing. 

\item[fullpage] (package) This is the easiest way to set normal margin
widths.\footnote{Both fullpage and simplemargins (see below) are
explained in detail in Section~\ref{sec:margins}.}

\item[simplemargins$^{\dagger}$] (package) Enables commands to simplify
modifying the margins.  This gives more flexibility than fullpage (see
above) but takes a little more effort to use$^7$.

\item[twocolumn] (option) Will print text in two vertical columns, side by side.
\item[epsf] (package) Allows you to include Encapsulated PostScript in
your document with the \verb+\epsfbox+ command. 
\font\demo=ptmr
\item[times] (package) To format the whole document in {\demo Times Roman} font.
\font\demo=pplr
\item[palatino] (package) To format the whole document in {\demo Palatino} font.
\font\demo=phvr
\item[helvetica] (package) To format the whole document in {\demo Helvetica} font.
\font\demo=pncr
\item[ncs] (package) To format the whole document in {\demo New Century Schoolbook} font.
\font\demo=pagk
\item[avantgarde] (package) To format the whole document in {\demo Avant-Garde} font.
\font\demo=pbkl
\item[bookman] (package) To format the whole document in {\demo Bookman} font.
\item[quiet] (package) Will tell \LaTeX{}  to run in ``quiet'' mode, suppressing
warning messages. 
\item[latexsym] (package) Allows you to use symbols that are no longer
defined by default in \LaTeXe{}.  See Figure~\ref{fig:latexsym} for
a list of these symbols.

\end{description}

% \newpage
\subsection{Title Page}
To put a title page into a document, you could type the following:

\vbox{
\begin{verbatim}
\documentclass{report}

\title{Inessential \LaTeX{}}
\author{The Student Information Processing Board}
\date{\today}

\begin{document}
\maketitle
\end{verbatim}
} 
\noindent Creating a title page is a two step process in \LaTeX{}.
First you give it the information you want it to put on the title page
and then you tell it to make the title page.  The \verb+\title+,
\verb+\author+ and \verb+\date+ commands do not generate text---they
merely specify what \verb+\maketitle+ will place on the title page.
If you use \verb+\maketitle+, you must specify a \verb+\title+, but
any or all of the others may be omitted.  The \verb+\maketitle+
command generates the title page.  You must place it after the
\verb+\begin{document}+.  In the \verb+article+ document style, the
title ``page'' is at the top of the first page of the document.  To
put the title ``page'' on a page by itself place a \verb+\newpage+
command after the \verb+\maketitle+.  In the \verb+report+ and
\verb+book+ styles, it is on a separate page at the beginning.
\label{sec:docclass}

\LaTeX{}  will automatically number pages, but often you don't want a
page number on the title page.  To eliminate the page number on the
first page, put \verb+\thispagestyle{empty}+ before the
\verb+\maketitle+. 

It is possible to number pages alphabetically or with
roman numerals.  It is also possible to change the current page
number.  See the section of the \LaTeX{}  manual on page styles.

You can also generate a title page using the \verb+titlepage+
environment.  Anything placed in this environment will be placed on the
title page (which will be a separate page even if you are using the
\verb+article+ document class).  Another good way to create a title page
is to do it yourself, probably using commands like
\verb+\begin{center}+, \verb+\large{}+, and \verb+\newpage+.  Using this
method, \LaTeX{} won't know the difference between your title page and
any other page, but it may be easier to get what you want.


\subsection{Body}
The body of the document can be normal text.  Paragraphs are separated
by completely blank lines or by the \verb+\par+ command.
\paragraph{Special characters}
When entering normal text, you must watch out for a few things.  Some
characters are reserved for commands to \LaTeX{}, and are treated as
such unless you tell \LaTeX{} to treat them as normal characters.  To
use the characters
\begin{verbatim}
	# $ % & _ { }
\end{verbatim} % $ %% un-fool emacs font-lock-mode (verbatim vs. math-mode)
outside of a \verb+verbatim+ environment (see Section~\ref{sec:group}
for more information on environments), you must precede them with a
backslash (\verb+\+), like this:
\begin{verbatim}
	\# \$ \% \& \_ \{ \}
\end{verbatim}

These characters are also reserved:
\begin{verbatim}
	~ ^ \ < >
\end{verbatim}
Often, if you think you want one of these characters, you probably
want to do something else.
\begin{itemize}
\item \verb+~+ can be produced in several ways.  If you want a tilde
      over a character, like \~{n}, you can type \verb+\~{n}+ or
	\verb+\~n+.  If
      you want a mathematical $\sim$ you can type \verb+$\sim$+ (which
      stands for \emph{sim}\/ilar to).  More often you will want the
      $\sim$ within another math expression anyhow; for more detail
      see Section~\ref{sec:math} below.
\item \verb+^+ can likewise mean circumflex, as in \^{o} which is
      produced with \verb+\^{o}+ or \verb+\^o+.  In math mode you would use
      \verb+\hat{o}+ to indicate a unit vector. 
\item \verb+\+ is not used very often in normal writing, but you can
      type \verb+$\backslash$+ if you want to use it. 
\item \verb+<+ and \verb+>+ can be written as \verb+$<$+ and
      \verb+$>$+.  If you insert these symbols in your document
      without quoting them as described here, they will appear as
      upside-down exclamation points (<) and question marks (>).
\end{itemize}

\paragraph{Quotation Marks}
Ever notice how typeset material always has nice quotation marks, for
example, ``this'' instead of "this"?  \LaTeX{}  can generate these
fancy quotes with just a little effort on your part.  The ``
character, used to start a quotation, is made by typing \verb+``+.
Note that these are reverse quote, or ``back-tick'' characters,
usually found on the upper-left hand side of PC-style keyboards
(however, the Sun Type 5 keyboard puts it in the upper right).  The ''
character is made by typing \verb+''+.  In Emacs, the default mode for
\LaTeX{}  files (called \verb+tex-mode+) will generate the proper
characters when you press the " key.  \LaTeX{}  mode is automatically
loaded when you load a file ending in \verb+.tex+ that has a
\verb+\documentclass+ command near the top.

\paragraph{Divisions}
Text can be divided into parts, chapters,\footnote{Chapters are available
within \texttt{book} and \texttt{report} but not in \texttt{article}, so that
an article can be included as a chapter.} sections, subsections,
subsubsections, paragraphs, and subparagraphs.  Each division
has its own \LaTeX{}  command (\verb+\section+,
\verb+\subsection+, etc.).  These commands produce the appropriate
headings and entries in the table of contents, as well as numbering
the divisions.  For normal use, you probably want to use
\verb+section+, \verb+subsection+, and \verb+paragraph+.  The section 
\verb+paragraph+ is different from the command \verb+\par+.  A section
command places the title you give it in bold at the beginning of the
paragraph.  The \verb+\par+ command simply marks the beginning of the
paragraph, as would a blank line.

For example, in this document you are currently reading:

\begin{verbatim}
\section{Creating Your Document}
... things that are in the section ...
\subsection{Body}
... things that are in the subsection ...
\paragraph{Divisions}
... things that are in the paragraph ...
\end{verbatim}

If you don't want the division to be numbered in the document, include
an asterisk (\verb+*+) after the division name (e.g. \verb+\subsection*{Body}+).

\paragraph{Table of Contents}
Since \LaTeX{}  already has all of this information about the structure
of the document, it can easily collect it and build a table of
contents.  It will only do this if you explicitly tell it to.  \LaTeX{} \
will put the table of contents wherever you 
include the line
\begin{verbatim}
\tableofcontents
\end{verbatim}
in your document.  To put the table of contents at the beginning
(where people expect to find it) just put it in after the
\verb+\maketitle+ command.  You should run \LaTeX{}  at least twice
after you add the table of contents, since it takes two or three tries
to get the table of contents right---once to write all the page
numbers out to a file\footnote{This information is stored in the file
ending in \texttt{.aux}, which some people remove between invocations of
\LaTeX{}.  Doing this may save space, but it causes \LaTeX{}  to have
to repeat a lot of work, so you should avoid doing this
until you're sure that you won't be re-running \LaTeX{}  again in the
near future.}, and a second time to include those numbers at the
beginning of the document, and possibly a third time if the number of
pages the table of contents occupies changes.

When you make major changes, \LaTeX{}  may tell you that you need
to run it twice.  It is always a good idea to do this before
you print the final version of a document, just to make sure
everything is correct.


\subsection{Environments}
 If you want to change how \LaTeX{}  treats a certain section of text
(for instance changing the type style), you have to specify what text.
In \LaTeX{}  lingo, you need to indicate the \emph{scope\/} of the
command you are using to change the \emph{environment}.  For small
sections of text, this is done by starting the \emph{environment\/}
with an open brace (\verb+{+) character, followed by the command to
change the defaults, and ending with the close brace \verb+}+
character.  
	
 For example, to make appear in a {\Large larger font}, you could type 
\verb+{\Large larger font}+.  This limits the \emph{
scope\/} of the large command to the environment within the braces.  

 An environment can also be delimited with a \emph{begin--end\/} pair.
This is quite useful for larger sections of text.  For example, to
center multiple lines of text,

\begin{center}
like\\
these two,
\end{center}

\noindent you could use the following lines:

\begin{verbatim}
\begin{center}
like\\
these two,
\end{center}
\end{verbatim}

\noindent Note the \verb+\\+ following the first line.  This is a
command which tells \LaTeX{}  to break the line at that point, rather
than filling the text completely between the two margins like it
normally does.  This allows you to force lines to end when you want
them to, rather than when \LaTeX{}  wants them to.

\subsection{Ending the Document}
The last thing to put in the document is the line

\begin{verbatim}
\end{document}
\end{verbatim}

\LaTeX{}  ignores anything which follows the \verb+\end{document}+
command.  The only text after this should be comments, since you have
now finished your document.

\section{Processing your Document}
\label{sec:processing}

\label{texinputs}Once you have written your file and entered all the necessary
\LaTeX{} commands, you have to process the file before previewing or
printing it.  This separation of editing and processing is true for
almost any text formatter, and is the major difference between text
formatters and word processing systems.  FrameMaker and EZ both lean
more towards the word processing, WYSIWYG\footnote{What You See Is What
You Get} style of editing\footnote{The problem with WYSIWYG systems is
that often what you see \emph{isn't} really what you get, and the system
usually doesn't have any good way to deal with these problems.  We
prefer to think of it as WYSIRN (What You See Is Really Neat)
vs. WYSIWYAF (What You See Is What you Asked For) systems.}.  A
graphical frontend to \LaTeX{} named LyX is also available in the
\texttt{outland} locker\footnote{The \texttt{outland} locker is
maintained by the SIPB and many other contributors and generally holds
programs that are unsupported or in testing.  This means that you
probably don't want to be using LyX (or anything else from
\texttt{outland} for important work.  Please read the file
\texttt{/mit/outland/README} for more information on the support
policy.}

\subsection{Running \LaTeX{} }\label{sec:run}
If you have used any special \verb+.sty+ files (the optional
packages or options mentioned previously) which are only
available from \SIPB, you must first set an environment variable to
let \LaTeX{}  know where to go to find these files.  The command is:

%%% ALERT: newtex?
\begin{verbatim}
attach sipb
setenv TEXINPUTS .:/mit/sipb/lib/tex/macros/:
\end{verbatim}

These lines can be placed in your \verb+.environment+ file.  (See the
Athena document ``\emph{Essential Dotfiles.}'' for more details).  The
trailing colon  represents a blank
path entry, which \LaTeX{}  replaces with the default path entries.
Alternately, you can add \verb+add -f newtex+ to your
\verb+.environment+ file such that \LaTeX will be run from the
\verb+newtex+ locker and have the \verb+TEXINPUTS+ automatically set.

%%% ALERT: this should probably go SOMEWHERE...
%%% \footnote{\SIPB\ introduced \LaTeX{}  on Athena, which eventually led
%%% to Athena adopting it in the summer of 1989.}

%%% ALERT: newtex?
You can process a \LaTeX{}  file by typing
\begin{verbatim}
latex filename.tex
\end{verbatim}

\noindent where \texttt{filename.tex\/} is the name of your file that you
want to process.  \LaTeX{}  produces an output file named \texttt{
filename.dvi\/} (a \textbf{d\/}e\/\textbf{v\/}ice \textbf{i\/}ndependent file),
which can be converted and printed on various types of printers.

\paragraph{Running Previous Versions of \LaTeX{} }
The supported version of \LaTeX{}  on Athena is currently \LaTeXe, but
there are usually separate installations of older versions available.
Currently, \LaTeX{}  2.09 is available in the \verb+newtex+
locker.  You can access it by typing:

\begin{verbatim}
add newtex
latex209 filename.tex
\end{verbatim}
\noindent at the \verb+athena%+ prompt.  

See Section \ref{sec:2.09} for information on converting \LaTeX{} 2.09 documents 
to \LaTeXe.

\subsection{Previewing the Final Output}
It is usually convenient to use the graphic display of your
workstation to preview your document before printing it.  The command
\verb+xdvi filename &+ creates a window which shows you what the file
will look like when it is printed on the printer.  After you position
the \verb+xdvi+ window on your screen, it should show the first page
of the document.  You can use this like the \verb+more+ command: hit
space to go forward a page, and \verb+b+ to go back a page.  This way
you can go back and forth between the \verb+xdvi+ previewer and the
\LaTeX{}  source, rerunning \LaTeX{}  and looking at the \verb+xdvi+
display each time.  (\verb+xdvi+ automatically notices that you've
changed something, and displays the newest output.)  

%%% ALERT: this guide was sperated out of iLaTeX{} but isn't distributed
%%% anymore.  Do something about this.
%%%
%%% For more details about how to use \verb+xdvi+ see the one page guide
%%% at the end of this document.  Using \verb+xdvi+ will prevent you from
%%% having to print out your document each time you want to see what the
%%% final product will look like.

\subsection{Printing the File}
\paragraph{Printing on Athena}
When you are ready to print out the file, you must convert from dvi
format to the format of the printer you are using.  To translate
\verb+filename.dvi+ to \PS{}\footnote{\PS{} is the ``language''
understood by Athena printers, and many others.} and send it to your
default printer, use the command:
\begin{verbatim}
dvips filename.dvi
\end{verbatim}
If you have no default printer\footnote{You can check this by typing
\texttt{lpq} and noting what printer it lists.} or you want to send the
printout to a specific printer use the command:

\texttt{dvips -P\emph{printername\/} filename.dvi}

\noindent replacing \emph{printername\/} with the name of the printer to
which you want to send your document. 

It is possible to obtain the intermediate \PS{} file with the command

\texttt{dvips -o filename.ps filename.dvi}

or with
\texttt{dvips filename -o} if you don't need to set the \PS{}
filename. 

It is possible to select particular pages out of a document, if you
are making changes and want to see what they will look like on paper
(note that \verb+xdvi+ gives a very accurate rendition, and should be
enough for most purposes).  The command

\texttt{dvips -p\emph{first\/} -l\emph{last\/} -P\emph{printername\/} filename.dvi}

\noindent will print from the page numbered ``first'' to the page numbered
``last''.  To print without a header page, use

\texttt{dvips -f filename.dvi | lpr -h}\\

To get more information on \verb+dvips+, consult the manual page (typing
\verb+man dvips+ at your athena prompt).  Note that the older
\texttt{dvi2ps} program no longer exists on Athena.

% \paragraph{Printing for non-Athena Printers}

% Currently available in the \verb+outland+ locker\footnote{The
% \texttt{outland} locker is maintained by the \SIPB\ and many other
% contributors, and generally holds programs that are unsupported or in
% testing.  Please read the file \emph{/mit/outland/README} for more
% information on the support policy.} is a suite of tools to convert DVI
% files to HP LaserJet or IBM 3812 format, suitable for printing on many
% home printers.  For more information on this suite of tools, you can
% currently do:

% \begin{verbatim}
% add outland
% man dvi2xx
% \end{verbatim}

\subsection{Landscape (or Sideways) Mode}

If you want to print your document ``sideways,'' with the text running
parallel to the long edge of the paper, simply include 
\begin{verbatim}
\special{landscape}
\end{verbatim}
in the preamble of your document.  You also need to set the margins to
correspond to this new paper size (11x8.5 inches instead of 8.5x11
inches)---see Section~\ref{sec:margins} for details on changing
them.

\subsection{Using Both Sides of the Paper: Duplex and Tumble Modes}

With \verb+dvips+, you can print in \emph{duplex} or \emph{tumble} mode
by using the \verb+-h+ option:

\begin{verbatim}
dvips -h duplex filename.dvi
\end{verbatim}
\noindent or
\begin{verbatim}
dvips -h tumble filename.dvi
\end{verbatim}

If you always want your document to be printed two-sided, you can
include one of the following commands in your document preamble:

\verb+\special{header=duplex}+\\
\verb+\special{header=tumble}+

The difference between duplex and tumble concerns whether pages are
printed with opposite sides sharing a ``top'' of the page (duplex), so
that turning the page side-to-side leaves both sides correctly
oriented (as in a book), or whether these pages are flipped vertically
(tumbled), so that turning the page up leaves both sides correctly
oriented (as in a legal notepad).  The orientation will obviously be
somewhat different if the printout is landscape mode instead of
portrait mode.  For most uses, the duplex mode is the more fitting.

\section{Error Messages}
The error messages produced by \LaTeX{}  are the most confusing part of
using it.  Most people have trouble understanding what \LaTeX{}  is
telling them.  This section describes some of the more common errors,
what they mean, and how you can fix the problem.

In general, when an error occurs you should hit return to see if
\LaTeX{}  will keep on going, or enter
\verb+x+ to exit.  
If \LaTeX{}  is asking for a filename, \verb+Control-D+ will help exit
\LaTeX{}. 
If \verb+x+, \verb+^C+, and \verb+^D+ do not return you to your
\verb+athena%+ prompt, type
\verb+^Z+.  In order to kill the \emph{stopped\/} process you need
to do the following (assuming that you use \texttt{csh} or one of its descendants):
\begin{verbatim}
athena% kill %latex
athena% 
[1]  + Terminated           latex
athena%
\end{verbatim}
By hitting $<$return$>$ when you get your prompt back you should get
the message that \LaTeX{}  was indeed killed.  For more information
about processes and how to control them see \emph{More Unix:  the
C-shell\/} available from Athena.

\subsection{\LaTeX{}  errors}
There are two kinds of errors:  \LaTeX{}  errors and \TeX{} errors.  \TeX{}
is the language in which \LaTeX{}  is written, and some of the basic
errors come from there.  All errors have an error message which starts
with an exclamation point.  A \LaTeX{}  error can be distinguished from a
\TeX{} error by the following:
\begin{verbatim}
! LaTeX error: <error message here>

See the LaTeX manual or LaTeX Companion for explanation.
Type  H <return>  for immediate help.
 ...                                              

\end{verbatim}
\noindent The error message is printed on the next line, which starts
with a number and then the text of the line that caused the error.  The
part of the number after the decimal point is the line number where the
error occurred.  If you cannot figure out what the problem is by looking
at the error message, you can go to the offending line in the original
document and look at it.  The problem may lie a few lines above the one
which \LaTeX{} complained about.  The error message should make more
sense after you have looked at the offending text.

Some of the more common error messages are:

\begin{verbatim}
! \begin{...} ended by \end{...}.
\end{verbatim}

\noindent This is usually caused by forgetting to end an environment which
was started by a \verb+\begin+ command.

\begin{verbatim}
!  Can be used only in preamble.
\end{verbatim}

\noindent Certain commands can only be entered before the
\verb+\begin{document}+ statement.  This part of the file
is called the ``preamble.''  Move the offending statement
to the preamble and try again.


\begin{verbatim}
!  Environment ... undefined.
\end{verbatim}

\noindent An environment defined in a \verb+\begin+ or \verb+\end+
statement is not recognized.  This is usually caused by a spelling
error.

\begin{verbatim}
!  Missing \begin{document}.
\end{verbatim}

\noindent All files must have a \verb+\begin{document}+ before any
text which is intended to be printed.

\subsection{\TeX{} errors}

\begin{verbatim}
!  I can't find file `...'.
\end{verbatim}

\noindent This often indicates that the file name was mistyped or that
you are not in the correct directory.  \TeX{} will wait for you to
type in a file name.  If a mistake was made, and you want to abort the
command, you will need to hit \verb+^D+ which will cause an
``Emergency stop'' when \TeX{} is waiting for you to type something.

\begin{verbatim}
!  Missing { inserted.
!  Missing } inserted.
\end{verbatim}

\begin{verbatim}
!  Missing $ inserted.
\end{verbatim} % $ %% un-fool emacs font-lock-mode (verbatim vs. math-mode)

\noindent This usually occurs if a command was typed which can only be
used in math mode.  \LaTeX{}  can be allowed to continue, but the output
will look strange.  The offending command should be put into math
mode.

\begin{verbatim}
! Undefined control sequence.
l.7 \auhtor{The Student Information Processing Board}
\end{verbatim}

\noindent The command \verb+\auhtor+ on line seven is misspelled and so
\LaTeX{}  does not recognize it.  If \LaTeX{}  does not recognize a
command you used, but you think it exists, check the documentation
again to make sure you are using the command correctly.


If you cannot figure out what is wrong, give the \SIPB\ office a
call,\footnote{Our phone number is 253-7788, or stop by our office in
W20-557---just outside the Student Center cluster.} or try the
Athena Consultants.\footnote{On-line, type \texttt{olc} or call
253-4435.}  The Zephyr \texttt{help} instance is also often useful; see
the document \emph{Inessential Zephyr} for more details on using
zephyr instances.

\subsection{Warnings}

Warnings do not cause \LaTeX{} to stop processing the document, but
preview the output before printing your final version to make sure the
output is acceptable.  Below are some common warnings, followed by
explanations. In general, \TeX{} is probably more of a perfectionist
about wanting to get your spacing right than you are, so you shouldn't
worry if it complains about overfull/underfull when it looks fine to
you."


\begin{verbatim}
Overfull \hbox (24.30751pt too wide) in paragraph at lines 6--9
\end{verbatim}

\noindent This occurs whenever a line is too wide to fit between the margins.
\LaTeX{}  will produce a line that is too wide when it cannot find
an acceptable place to insert a line break.  Use \verb+xdvi+ to look
at the output, then change the file if necessary.

\begin{verbatim}
Underfull \hbox (badness 10000) in paragraph at lines 6--18
\end{verbatim}

\noindent This error is similar to \verb+Overfull \hbox+.  It occurs
when \LaTeX{}  is forced to put lots of space between words to justify
the text.  This usually happens when a paragraph is not properly ended
before certain kinds of environments (like forcing a carriage return with
\verb+\\+).  Inserting a blank line or a 
\verb+\par+ command after the offending paragraph should fix it.

\begin{small}
\begin{verbatim}
LaTeX Warning: Label(s) may have changed. Rerun to get cross-references right.
\end{verbatim}
\end{small}

\noindent This occurs when page numbers change from one running of
\LaTeX{}  to another.  Simply re-run \LaTeX{}  to resolve the problem.
Occasionally, \LaTeX{}  will have to be run twice in a row to clear up
the problem.


\section{Other useful things to know about}
\label{sec:group}

\LaTeX{}  is very powerful.  There are commands to do
almost anything.  This guide is an attempt to explain many of the
commonly used commands.  Below you will find information that should
help you produce papers with \LaTeX{}.  If you are familiar with
\SCRIBE, you will begin to see why \LaTeX{}  is easier to use.

\subsection{Margins}
\label{sec:margins}

\LaTeX{}  has very large default margins---almost two inches wide on
each side.  Most people don't like them.\footnote{Except for people
writing books and theses, who need them.}  Fortunately, \LaTeX{}  margins are easy
to change.  An easy way to use more of the page is to use the
\verb+fullpage+ option to \verb+documentclass+ (see Section~\ref{sec:docclass}).

While most text formatting systems use left and
right margins, \LaTeX{}  keeps track of the left margin and the text
width.  In fact, since \LaTeX{}  lets you specify different margins for
even and odd numbered pages, it keeps track of two left-hand
margins.\footnote{While this is very useful for double-sided
documents, it can make changing the margins a little confusing.}  So,
to reduce the left hand margin by half an inch you would use the
commands:
\begin{verbatim}
\addtolength{\oddsidemargin}{-.5in}
\addtolength{\evensidemargin}{-.5in}
\end{verbatim}
\noindent Then to reduce the ``right-hand margin'' by the same amount, you
would increase text width:
\begin{verbatim}
\addtolength{\textwidth}{1in}
\end{verbatim}

If you've included the \texttt{simplemargins\/} package, you can use a set of commands to simplify
setting margins.  These commands are perhaps more intuitive:

\begin{verbatim} 
\setleftmargin{1in} 
\setrightmargin{1in} 
\settopmargin{1in}
\setbottommargin{1in}
\end{verbatim} 

\noindent If you merely want to set all margins to a uniform size, use:

\begin{verbatim}
\setallmargins{1in}
\end{verbatim}

Again, however, you must have included the \texttt{simplemargins\/}
packages and you must thus also set the \verb+TEXINPUTS+ variable
mentioned in Section~\ref{texinputs}.



\subsection{Type Styles}
There are several different type styles available in \LaTeX{}: \textbf{
bold} (textbf), \textsf{sans serif} (textsf), \textsl{slanted\/}
(textsl), \textsc{small caps} (textsc), \texttt{typewriter} (texttt),
\textit{italic\/} (textit), and the default, roman (textrm).  To use one
of these type styles simply, use the appropriate command as shown in the
following example.

\begin{tabbing}
\hspace{2.5in}\=\kill

The following lines:		\> Are produced by:\\

\textbf{This is bold type.}	\> \verb+\textbf{This is bold type.}+\\
\textsf{This is sans serif type.}	\> \verb+\textsf{This is sans serif type.}+\\
\textsl{This is slanted type.}	\> \verb+\textsl{This is slanted type.}+\\
\textsc{This is Small Caps type.}	\> \verb+\textsc{This is Small Caps type.}+\\
\texttt{This is typewriter type.}	\> \verb+\texttt{This is typewriter type.}+\\
\textit{This is italic type.}	\> \verb+\textit{This is italic type.}+\\
\textrm{This is normal roman type.} \> \verb+\textrm{This is normal roman type.}+\\
\end{tabbing}

You will notice that there is no underline style.  This is
intentional, since underlining is not normally used in a typeset
document.  Titles (and other text normally underlined in hand-written
documents) are properly emphasized with the \verb+\emph+ command.
If you really want to get \underline{underlining}, type
\verb+\underline{+\emph{text to be underlined\/}\verb+}+, but note that
underlining is ``fragile'' (which makes it difficult to use in section
titles and a few other places---see the \LaTeX{}  manual for details).

\subsection{Type Sizes}\label{subsec:typ}
The type size can be controlled as well.  If you want to change the
size as well as the style, you must set the size first, and
then the style; to get a large bold type style, type
\verb+{\large\bf +\emph{text\/}\verb+}+.

\begin{tabbing}
\hspace{3.25in}\=\kill

The following sizes:		\> Are produced by:\\
{\tiny This is tiny type.} \> \verb+{\tiny This is tiny type.}+ \\
{\scriptsize This is scriptsize type.} \> \verb+{\scriptsize This is scriptsize type.}+ \\
{\footnotesize This is footnotesize type.} \> \verb+{\footnotesize This is footnotesize type.}+ \\
{\small This is small type.} \> \verb+{\small This is small type.}+ \\
{\normalsize This is normalsize type.} \> \verb+{\normalsize This is normalsize type.}+ \\
{\large This is large type.} \> \verb+{\large This is large type.}+ \\
{\Large This is Large type.} \> \verb+{\Large This is Large type.}+ \\
{\LARGE This is LARGE type.} \> \verb+{\LARGE This is LARGE type.}+ \\
{\huge This is huge type.} \> \verb+{\huge This is huge type.}+ \\
{\Huge This is Huge type.} \> \verb+{\Huge This is Huge type.}+ \\
\end{tabbing}

\subsection{Footnotes}

	Footnotes are very easy in \LaTeX{}.  You simply place the
footnote text where you want the reference to appear and \LaTeX{}  takes
care of everything else.  This sentence and footnote\footnote{See?
It's a footnote.} were created by typing the following:
\begin{small}
\begin{verbatim}
This sentence and footnote\footnote{See? It's a footnote.} were created
by typing the following.
\end{verbatim}
\end{small}


\subsection{Tables}

	\LaTeX{}  has a simple method for generating all sorts of
tables.  You give it one command to tell it how to set up the table
and then give it the data.  You specify how many columns the table is
going to have, what to do to the data within each column as well as
how to separate each column.  When you enter the data you give one row
at a time.  Each data field is separated by ``\verb+&+'' and the end
of a row is signaled by ``\verb+\\+''.  Here are several examples of
what is possible and how to create them.

\begin{tabular}{clr}
a& b& c\\ aa& bb& cccccc\\
aaa& 
bbb& ccc\\
\end{tabular}

This is a table with three columns.  In the first column the data are
centered, in the second they are left justified and in the third they
are right justified.  This was done by entering \verb+{clr}+.
Changing what is in these curly braces changes the number of columns
and how each one is formatted.  The previous example was created with
the following text.  Notice that the line breaks in the typed text
make no difference to \LaTeX{}.  Rows are separated by the \verb+\\+
character and the columns within the rows are separated by the \&
character.

\begin{verbatim}
\begin{tabular}{clr}
a& b& c\\ aa& bb& cccccc\\
aaa& 
bbb& ccc\\
\end{tabular}
\end{verbatim}

	You can also have boxes around the table and lines separating
the columns if you like.  \LaTeX{}  will put vertical lines wherever
you put a \verb+|+ in the column specifications.  \LaTeX{}  has two
commands for creating horizontal lines in tables.  \verb+\hline+ creates a
horizontal line across the whole table.  \verb+\cline{m-n}+ creates a
horizontal line from the beginning of column \verb+m+ to the end of
column \verb+n+. 

\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{||c|l||r||}\hline
a& b& c\\ \cline{2-3} aa& bb& cc\\ \hline
aaa& 
bbb& ccc\\ \hline\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{center}

This was created using the following commands:

\begin{verbatim}
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{||c|l||r||}\hline
a& b& c\\ \cline{2-3} aa& bb& cc\\ \hline
aaa& 
bbb& ccc\\ \hline\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\end{verbatim}

\subsection{Lists}

	There are four different types of lists in \LaTeX{}.  The
following is an example containing all four.
 
\begin{description}
\item [Enumerate] will give you a numbered list.
\begin{enumerate}
\item You can nest lists in \LaTeX{} \
\begin{enumerate}
\item You can even sub-nest lists
\item and it changes how they are counted
\end{enumerate}
\item up to four levels deep
\end{enumerate}
\item [Itemize] produces a list with bullets
\begin{itemize}
\item Some people like bullets,
\item while others do not.
\end{itemize}

\item [Description] is what you use when you want to describe a
list of items.  This list of \verb+list+ environments is an example of
a \verb+description+.  Notice that it will make the items you are
describing appear in bold faced type.

\item [List] If you do not like any of these possibilities you can
modify the \verb+list+ environment to create your own.  See the 
\LaTeX{}  manual for more information.
\end{description}  

\noindent The following text was used to create the previous
example.  We have broken it up to add comments and explanations of some
of the more obscure commands.


\begin{verbatim}
% The percent sign is the comment character in LaTeX.  LaTeX ignores
% everything on a line following a % character.
\begin{description}

% Notice the brackets and braces; {} are very different from [] in LaTeX

\item [Enumerate]  will give you a numbered list.

\begin{enumerate}                
\item You can nest lists in \LaTeX{} 
\begin{enumerate}
\item You can even sub-nest lists
\item and it changes how they are counted
\end{enumerate}
\item up to four levels deep
\end{enumerate}

\item [Itemize] produces a list with bullets

\begin{itemize}
\item Some people like bullets,
\item while others do not.
\end{itemize}

\item [Description] is what you use when you want to describe a
list of items.  This list of \verb+list+ environments is an example of
a \verb+description+.

\item [List] If you do not like any of these possibilities you can
modify the \verb+list+ environment to create your own.  See the 
\LaTeX{}  manual for more information.
\end{description}
\end{verbatim}


\section{Documents in a Foreign Language }\label{sec:lang}

\LaTeX{}  is very useful for writing documents in a foreign
language.  \LaTeX{}  can theoretically support any language.\footnote{Some
languages require unusual fonts.  \SIPB\ is
experimenting with \TeX{} for other languages, including German,
Russian, and Arabic; send email to \texttt{bug-newtex} if you are
interested in more details.}  However, in reality, there is hyphenation
support for only a few dozen.  The standard version of \LaTeX{} \
supports the English language, and it can hyphenate most English words
correctly.  \SIPB\ has a version of \LaTeX{}  which can hyphenate a
document written in German, and we are working on getting French and
Spanish versions.  The English version can be used to produce foreign
language documents, but be warned that hyphenation will be according
to rules of the English language.

\paragraph{Foreign Symbols}
Many Western languages use symbols and accents that do not appear in
normal English.  \LaTeX{}  provides a convenient method of generating
accents and other symbols.  Figure~\ref{fig:accents} shows accents
that can be placed on any existing character---simply replace the
\verb+o+ in the curly braces with the letter you wish to accent.

\begin{figure}[hbt]
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{clclclclcl}
\'{o} & \verb+\'{o}+&
\`{o} & \verb+\`{o}+&
\^{o} & \verb+\^{o}+&
\"{o} & \verb+\"{o}+&
\~{o} & \verb+\~{o}+\\
\={o} & \verb+\={o}+&
\.{o} & \verb+\.{o}+&
\u{o} & \verb+\u{o}+&
\v{o} & \verb+\v{o}+&
\H{o} & \verb+\H{o}+\\
\t{oo} & \verb+\t{oo}+&
\c{o} & \verb+\c{o}+&
\d{o} & \verb+\d{o}+&
\b{o} & \verb+\b{o}+& \\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\caption{Accents}\label{fig:accents}
\end{figure}

Some other foreign characters are encoded directly, when they cannot
be built as combinations.  Figure~\ref{fig:syms} shows foreign-language
symbols which are available, and Figure~\ref{fig:spsyms} shows some
special non-English symbols.  Note that these characters cannot
immediately be followed by other characters, so you must follow them
with a space or with empty curly braces, as in:

\L{}ukasiewicz invented prefix (Polish) notation.

\noindent which is produced by

\begin{verbatim}
\L{}ukasiewicz invented prefix (Polish) notation.
\end{verbatim}

\begin{figure}[hbt]
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{clclclclcl}
\oe & \verb+\oe+ &
\OE & \verb+\OE+ &
\ae & \verb+\ae+ &
\AE & \verb+\AE+ &
\aa & \verb+\aa+ \\
\AA & \verb+\AA+ &
\o & \verb+\o+ &
\O & \verb+\O+ &
\l & \verb+\l+ &
\L & \verb+\L+ \\
\ss &  \verb+\ss+ &
?` & \verb+?`+ &
!` & \verb+!`+\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\caption{Foreign language symbols}\label{fig:syms}
\end{figure}

\begin{figure}[hbt]
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{clclclclcl}
\dag & \verb+\dag+ &
\ddag & \verb+\ddag+ &
\S & \verb+\S+ &
\P & \verb+\P+ &
\copyright & \verb+\copyright+ \\
\pounds & \verb+\pounds+ \\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\caption{Special Language Symbols}\label{fig:spsyms}
\end{figure}

\section{Mathematical Text and other Special Symbols}\label{sec:math}

Equations can be inserted into your text in several ways.  Placing
\verb+$+\ldots\verb+$+ or \verb+\(+\ldots\verb+\)+ or
\verb+\begin{math}+ \ldots \verb+\end{math}+ around the mathematical
expression or special symbol allows you to place it in a line of
normal text.  This will use the smaller symbols (see
Figure~\ref{fig:varsym}), and adjust the size of the formula as
necessary.  It will also adjust other things.  For example, to place
$\sum_{i=1}^n$ in a line of text, \LaTeX{}  puts the ``$i=1$'' to the
right of the $\sum$ instead of underneath.  Placing
\verb+\[+\ldots\verb+\]+ or \verb+\begin{displaymath}+\ldots
\verb+\end{displaymath}+ around the expression will center it and set
it off from the rest of the text, using the larger symbols.

\begin{figure}
\begin{tabbing}
\hspace{1.6in}\=
\hspace{1.6in}\=
\hspace{1.6in}\=
\kill

%% Variable-sized Symbols (3.8, p45) which are different in text/display.
\begin{minipage}[b]{.4in}\[ \sum  \]\end{minipage} $\sum$ \verb+  \sum+
\>
\begin{minipage}[b]{.4in}\[ \prod \]\end{minipage} $\prod$ \verb+  \prod+
\>
\begin{minipage}[b]{.4in}\[ \coprod \]\end{minipage} $\coprod$ \verb+  \coprod+
\>
\begin{minipage}[b]{.4in}\[ \int \]\end{minipage} $\int$ \verb+  \int+
\\
\begin{minipage}[b]{.4in}\[ \oint \]\end{minipage} $\oint$ \verb+  \oint+
\>
\begin{minipage}[b]{.4in}\[ \bigcap \]\end{minipage} $\bigcap$ \verb+  \bigcap+
\>
\begin{minipage}[b]{.4in}\[ \bigcup \]\end{minipage} $\bigcup$ \verb+  \bigcup+
\>
\begin{minipage}[b]{.4in}\[ \bigsqcup \]\end{minipage} $\bigsqcup$ \verb+  \bigsqcup+
\\
\begin{minipage}[b]{.4in}\[ \bigvee \]\end{minipage} $\bigvee$ \verb+  \bigvee+
\>
\begin{minipage}[b]{.4in}\[ \bigwedge \]\end{minipage} $\bigwedge$ \verb+  \bigwedge+
\>
\begin{minipage}[b]{.4in}\[ \bigodot \]\end{minipage} $\bigodot$ \verb+  \bigodot+
\>
\begin{minipage}[b]{.4in}\[ \bigotimes \]\end{minipage} $\bigotimes$ \verb+  \bigotimes+
\\
\begin{minipage}[b]{.4in}\[ \bigoplus \]\end{minipage} $\bigoplus$ \verb+  \bigoplus+
\>
\begin{minipage}[b]{.4in}\[ \biguplus \]\end{minipage} $\biguplus$ \verb+  \biguplus+
\\
\end{tabbing}
\caption{Mathematical Symbols}\label{fig:varsym}
\end{figure}


To create a simple equation, for example $ F=ma $, you need only type
\verb+$ F=ma $+.  For more advanced formul\ae, like $ E=mc^2 $, you need
to tell \LaTeX{}  to superscript the 2.  The \verb+^+ character instructs
\LaTeX{}  to superscript, and the \verb+_+ character instructs \LaTeX{}  to
subscript. 

For example, \verb+$ E=mc^2 $+ is used to produce $E=mc^2$. 
Likewise  \verb:$ x_{k+1} $:  is used to produce  $ x_{k+1} $ .


If you want to put more than one character in the superscript or
subscript, you need to group them, using \verb+{+ and \verb+}+ as in
the examples above.  To print something with both superscripts and
subscripts, like $ _{238}U^{+4} $, just type \texttt{\$ \_\{238\}U\^\{+4\}
\$}.\footnote{Notice that although nothing in particular was subscripted, \LaTeX{} \
was told to subscript and it did the ``right thing''.}  Anything can
go into the brackets, and \LaTeX{}  will figure out what to do with it:
$ x^{35+9^{y_{z}}+4_{z}}_{1997} $ requires the hideous expression
\verb|$x^{35+9^{y_{z}}+4_{z}}_{1997}$|, but if you look
carefully it should be clear what is happening.  
To get the prime ($'$) symbol in math mode, type an
apostrophe (\verb+'+). 
Try some complex
expressions of your own, and see how easy they are to create.  There are
many symbols not found on the keyboard to help you in formatting just
about any kind of formula.  See Figures~\ref{fig:binops},
\ref{fig:relations}, \ref{fig:arrows} and \ref{fig:miscs} for symbols
not found on the keyboard, like $\pm$, $\geq$, and $\wp$.

\begin{figure}[hbtp]
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{clclclclcl}
%% Binary Operation Symbols (3.4, page 44)
$\pm$ & \verb+\pm+ & 
$\mp$ & \verb+\mp+ &
$\times$ & \verb+\times+ & 
$\div$ & \verb+\div+ \\
$\ast$ & \verb+\ast+ &
$\star$ & \verb+\star+ &
$\circ$ & \verb+\circ+ &
$\bullet$ & \verb+\bullet+ \\
$\cdot$ & \verb+\cdot+ &
$\cap$ & \verb+\cap+ &
$\cup$ & \verb+\cup+ & 
$\uplus$ & \verb+\uplus+ \\
$\sqcap$ & \verb+\sqcap+ & 
$\sqcup$ & \verb+\sqcup+ &
$\vee$ & \verb+\vee+ &
$\wedge$ & \verb+\wedge+ \\
$\setminus$ & \verb+\setminus+ &
$\wr$ & \verb+\wr+ & 
$\diamond$ & \verb+\diamond+ &
$\amalg$ & \verb+\amalg+ \\
$\oplus$ & \verb+\oplus+ &
$\ominus$ & \verb+\ominus+ & 
$\otimes$ & \verb+\otimes+ &
$\oslash$ & \verb+\oslash+ \\
$\odot$ & \verb+\odot+ &
$\bigcirc$ & \verb+\bigcirc+ &
$\dagger$ & \verb+\dagger+ & 
$\ddagger$ & \verb+\ddagger+ \\
$\bigtriangleup$ & \verb+\bigtriangleup+ &
$\bigtriangledown$ &\verb+\bigtriangledown+ &
$\triangleleft$ & \verb+\triangleleft+ &
$\triangleright$ & \verb+\triangleright+ \\

% this used to be done as multicolumns, but I can't get it to work
% with \verb in the \multicolumn, and \texttt doesn't look quite right...
% spread these long names:
% $\bigtriangleup$ & \multicolumn{3}{l}{ \texttt{$\backslash$foo}} &
% $\bigtriangledown$ & \multicolumn{3}{l}{ \texttt{bigtriangledown}}\\

% $\triangleleft$ & \multicolumn{3}{l}{ \texttt{triangleleft}} &
% $\triangleright$ & \multicolumn{3}{l}{ \texttt{triangleright}} \\

\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\caption{Binary Operations}\label{fig:binops}
\end{figure}

\begin{figure}[hbtp]
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{clclclclcl}
%% Relation Symbols (3.5, p44)
$\leq$ & \verb+\leq+ & $\prec$ & \verb+\prec+ &
$\preceq$ & \verb+\preceq + & $\ll$ & \verb+\ll+ &
$\subset$ & \verb+\subset+ \\

$\subseteq$ & \verb+\subseteq+ & $\in$ & \verb+\in+ &
$\vdash$ & \verb+\vdash+ &
$\geq$ & \verb+\geq+ & $\succ$ & \verb+\succ+ \\

$\succeq$ & \verb+\succeq+ & $\gg$ & \verb+\gg+ &
$\supset$ & \verb+\supset+ &
$\supseteq$ & \verb+\supseteq+ & $\sqsupset$ & \verb+\sqsupset+ \\

$\sqsupseteq$ & \verb+\sqsupseteq+ & $\ni$ & \verb+\ni+ &
$\dashv$ & \verb+\dashv+ &
$\equiv$ & \verb+\equiv+ & $\sim$ & \verb+\sim+ \\

$\simeq$ & \verb+\simeq+ & $\asymp$ & \verb+\asymp+ &
$\approx$ & \verb+\approx+ &
$\cong$ & \verb+\cong+ & $\neq$ & \verb+\neq+ \\

$\doteq$ & \verb+\doteq+ & $\propto$ & \verb+\propto+ &
$\models$ & \verb+\models+ &
$\perp$ & \verb+\perp+ & $\mid$ & \verb+\mid+ \\

$\parallel$ & \verb+\parallel+ & $\bowtie$ & \verb+\bowtie+ &
$\smile$ & \verb+\smile+ & $\frown$ & \verb+\frown+
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\caption{Relations}\label{fig:relations}
\end{figure}

\begin{figure}[hbtp]
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{clclcl}
%% Arrow Symbols (3.6, p45)
$\leftarrow$ & \verb+\leftarrow+ &
$\Leftarrow$ & \verb+\Leftarrow+ &
$\rightarrow$ & \verb+\rightarrow+ \\

$\Rightarrow$ & \verb+\Rightarrow+ &
$\leftrightarrow$ & \verb+\leftrightarrow+ &
$\Leftrightarrow$ & \verb+\Leftrightarrow+ \\

$\mapsto$ & \verb+\mapsto+ &
$\hookleftarrow$ & \verb+\hookleftarrow+ &
$\leftharpoonup$ & \verb+\leftharpoonup+ \\

$\leftharpoondown$ & \verb+\leftharpoondown+ &
$\rightleftharpoons$ & \verb+\rightleftharpoons+ &
$\longleftarrow$ & \verb+\longleftarrow+ \\

$\Longleftarrow$ & \verb+\Longleftarrow+ &
$\longrightarrow$ & \verb+\longrightarrow+ &
$\Longrightarrow$ & \verb+\Longrightarrow+ \\

$\longleftrightarrow$ & \verb+\longleftrightarrow+ &
$\Longleftrightarrow$ & \verb+\Longleftrightarrow+ &
$\longmapsto$ & \verb+\longmapsto+ \\

$\hookrightarrow$ & \verb+\hookrightarrow+ &
$\rightharpoonup$ & \verb+\rightharpoonup+ &
$\rightharpoondown$ & \verb+\rightharpoondown+ \\

$\uparrow$ & \verb+\uparrow+ &
$\Uparrow$ & \verb+\Uparrow+ &
$\downarrow$ & \verb+\downarrow+ \\

$\Downarrow$ & \verb+\Downarrow+ &
$\updownarrow$ & \verb+\updownarrow+ &
$\Updownarrow$ & \verb+\Updownarrow+ \\

$\nearrow$ & \verb+\nearrow+ &
$\searrow$ & \verb+\searrow+ &
$\swarrow$ & \verb+\swarrow+ \\

$\nwarrow$ & \verb+\nwarrow+
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\caption{Arrows}\label{fig:arrows}
\end{figure}

\begin{figure}[hbtp]
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{clclclcl}
%% Miscellaneous Symbols (3.7, p45)
$\aleph$ & \verb+\aleph+ & $\hbar$ & \verb+\hbar+ &
$\imath$ & \verb+\imath+ & $\jmath$ & \verb+\jmath+ \\

$\ell$ & \verb+\ell+ & $\wp$ & \verb+\wp+ & 
$\Re$ & \verb+\Re+ & $\Im$ & \verb+\Im+ \\

$\infty$ & \verb+\infty+ & $\prime$ & \verb+\prime+ &
$\emptyset$ & \verb+\emptyset+ & $\nabla$ & \verb+\nabla+ \\

$\surd$ & \verb+\surd+ & $\top$ & \verb+\top+ &
$\bot$ & \verb+\bot+ & $\|$ & \verb+\|+ \\

 $\angle$ & \verb+\angle+ &
$\forall$ & \verb+\forall+ & $\exists$ & \verb+\exists+ &
$\neg$ & \verb+\neg+ \\

$\flat$ & \verb+\flat+ & $\natural$ & \verb+\natural+ &
$\sharp$ & \verb+\sharp+ & $\backslash$ & \verb+\backslash+ \\

$\partial$ & \verb+\partial+ & $\triangle$ & \verb+\triangle+ &
$\clubsuit$ & \verb+\clubsuit+  & $\diamondsuit$ & \verb+\diamondsuit+\\

$\heartsuit$ & \verb+\heartsuit+ & $\spadesuit$ & \verb+\spadesuit+
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\caption{Miscellaneous Symbols}\label{fig:miscs}
\end{figure}

Of course, not all expressions are polynomials.  \LaTeX{}  uses two
special cases, \verb+\sqrt+ and \verb+\frac+ to create square roots
(radical sign surrounding the entire expression) and fractions (one
expression over another with a dividing bar between them)
respectively.  The term $ \sqrt{1-\frac{v^2}{c^2}} $,
commonly used in Lorentz transformations, is expressed as 
\verb|$\sqrt{1-\frac{v^2}{c^2}} $| in line.  You might want it displayed
as \[ \sqrt{1-\frac{v^2}{c^2}} \] instead, which is generated with 
\verb|\[\sqrt{1-\frac{v^2}{c^2}} \]|.

If the equation is more interesting, or if you want to refer to it
later on, you might want to assign it a number by using the
\verb+equation+ environment.  The quadratic formula
\begin{equation}
x=\frac{-b\pm\sqrt{b^2-4ac}}{2a}
\end{equation}

\noindent is displayed by

\begin{verbatim}
\begin{equation}
x=\frac{-b\pm\sqrt{b^2-4ac}}{2a}
\end{equation}
\end{verbatim}

%}

You can supply an optional argument to \verb+\sqrt+, specifying a
different root than 2.  For example, the fourth root,
$\sqrt[4]{1024}$, is expressed as \verb+\sqrt[4]{1024}+.


Often in a mathematical equation you will want to use symbols instead
of the standard italicized letters for variable names.  You can add
Greek letters by typing the command associated with the particular
letter---see Figures~\ref{fig:greek} and~\ref{fig:Greek}.  
\begin{figure}[hbtp]
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{clclclclcl}
%% Greek - 3.3, p43. Note:  these are only available in math mode
%% lowercase
$\alpha$ & \verb+\alpha+ & $\beta$ & \verb+\beta+ &
$\gamma$ & \verb+\gamma+ & $\delta$ & \verb+\delta+ &
$\epsilon$ & \verb+\epsilon+ \\

$\varepsilon$ & \verb+\varepsilon+ & $\zeta$ & \verb+\zeta+ &
$\eta$ & \verb+\eta+ & $\theta$ & \verb+\theta+ &
$\vartheta$ & \verb+\vartheta+ \\

$\iota$ & \verb+\iota+ & $\kappa$ & \verb+\kappa+ &
$\lambda$ & \verb+\lambda+ & $\mu$ & \verb+\mu+ &
$\nu$ & \verb+\nu+ \\

$\xi$ & \verb+\xi+ & $o$ & \verb+o+ &
%%note omicron is just o
$\pi$ & \verb+\pi+ & $\varpi$ & \verb+\varpi+ &
$\rho$ & \verb+\rho+ \\

$\varrho$ & \verb+\varrho+ & $\sigma$ & \verb+\sigma+ &
$\varsigma$ & \verb+\varsigma+ & $\tau$ & \verb+\tau+ &
$\upsilon$ & \verb+\upsilon+ \\

$\phi$ & \verb+\phi+ & $\varphi$ & \verb+\varphi+ &
$\chi$ & \verb+\chi+ & $\psi$ & \verb+\psi+ &
$\omega$ & \verb+\omega+
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\caption{Lowercase Greek}\label{fig:greek}
\end{figure}


\begin{figure}[hbtp]
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{clclclclcl}
%% uppercase
$\Gamma$ & \verb+\Gamma+ & $\Delta$ & \verb+\Delta+ &
$\Theta$ & \verb+\Theta+ & $\Lambda$ & \verb+\Lambda+ &
$\Xi$ & \verb+\Xi+ \\

$\Pi$ & \verb+\Pi+ & $\Sigma$ & \verb+\Sigma+ &
$\Upsilon$ & \verb+\Upsilon+ & $\Phi$ & \verb+\Phi+ &
$\Psi$ & \verb+\Psi+ \\

$\Omega$ & \verb+\Omega+
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\caption{Uppercase Greek}\label{fig:Greek}
\end{figure}

Note that if you want to use Greek letters in normal text mode, you
must place them in a math environment by surrounding them with
\verb+$+\ldots\verb+$+.  You can also create function names with the
$\cal CALLIGRAPHY$ font.  This is treated like any type style change
such as \verb+\bf+, but like the Greek letters, you can use it only in
math mode.  In addition, you only have the 26 upper-case letters
available (see Figure~\ref{fig:callig}).

\begin{figure}[hbtp]
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{clclclclcl}
%% Calligraphic letters A-Z upper only
$\mathcal{A}$ & \verb+\mathcal{A}+ & 
$\mathcal{B}$ & \verb+\mathcal{B}+ &
$\mathcal{C}$ & \verb+\mathcal{C}+ &
$\mathcal{D}$ & \verb+\mathcal{D}+ \\ 
$\mathcal{E}$ & \verb+\mathcal{E}+ &
$\mathcal{F}$ & \verb+\mathcal{F}+ &
$\mathcal{G}$ & \verb+\mathcal{G}+ & 
$\mathcal{H}$ & \verb+\mathcal{H}+ \\
$\mathcal{I}$ & \verb+\mathcal{I}+ &
$\mathcal{J}$ & \verb+\mathcal{J}+ & 
$\mathcal{K}$ & \verb+\mathcal{K}+ & 
$\mathcal{L}$ & \verb+\mathcal{L}+ \\
$\mathcal{M}$ & \verb+\mathcal{M}+ & 
$\mathcal{N}$ & \verb+\mathcal{N}+ &
$\mathcal{O}$ & \verb+\mathcal{O}+ &
$\mathcal{P}$ & \verb+\mathcal{P}+ \\ 
$\mathcal{Q}$ & \verb+\mathcal{Q}+ &
$\mathcal{R}$ & \verb+\mathcal{R}+ &
$\mathcal{S}$ & \verb+\mathcal{S}+ & 
$\mathcal{T}$ & \verb+\mathcal{T}+ \\
$\mathcal{U}$ & \verb+\mathcal{U}+ &
$\mathcal{V}$ & \verb+\mathcal{V}+ & 
$\mathcal{W}$ & \verb+\mathcal{W}+ &
$\mathcal{X}$ & \verb+\mathcal{X}+ \\
$\mathcal{Y}$ & \verb+\mathcal{Y}+ &
$\mathcal{Z}$ & \verb+\mathcal{Z}+
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\caption{Calligraphic Symbols}\label{fig:callig}
\end{figure}


Sometimes, a formula contains text that should be set in roman type.
For example, in the formula ``$\log xy = \log x + \log y$,'' the word
``log'' is not italicized like the variables $x$ and $y$.  It would be
inconvenient to have to exit math mode to type the text in normal roman
type, so the most common function names are defined as special commands.
If the desired command isn't defined, you can use something like
\verb+$x = \textrm{foo}$+ to produce $x = \textrm{foo}$ rather than $x =
foo$.  A
formula such as $\cos^2 x + \sin^2 x = 1$ would be entered as
\verb|$\cos^2 x + \sin^2 x = 1$|.  See Figure~\ref{fig:loglike} for a
list of all the special commands which are typeset like this.

The modulo function is slightly different from the other special
commands---it has two forms, a binary and a parenthesized one.  See
Figure~\ref{fig:mods} for an example of their usage.  There are also various
types of brackets and other delimiters available in math mode, as shown in
figure~\ref{fig:delims}.  Certain accents and other diacritical marks are 
available in math mode.  Some of these \emph{math mode accents\/} are only
available in math mode, while others are modified to work better in
math mode.
See Figure~\ref{fig:mathacc} for examples.
%\nopagebreak
\begin{figure}[hbtp]
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{llllllll}
%% Log-like Functions (3.9, p46) which force back to roman type.
\verb+\arccos+ & \verb+\cos+ & \verb+\csc+ &
\verb+\exp+ & \verb+\ker+ & \verb+\limsup+ &
\verb+\min+ & \verb+\sinh+ \\

\verb+\arcsin+ & \verb+\cosh+ & \verb+\deg+ & \verb+\gcd+ &
\verb+\lg+ & \verb+\ln+ & \verb+\Pr+ & \verb+\sup+ \\

\verb+\arctan+ & \verb+\cot+ & \verb+\det+ & \verb+\hom+ &
\verb+\lim+ & \verb+\log+ & \verb+\sec+ & \verb+\tan+ \\

\verb+\arg+ & \verb+\coth+ & \verb+\dim+ & \verb+\inf+ & 
\verb+\liminf+ & \verb+\max+ & \verb+\sin+ & \verb+\tanh+
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\caption{Log-like symbols}\label{fig:loglike}
\end{figure}
%\nopagebreak

\begin{figure}[hbtp]
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{cc}
%% and specials
$a \bmod b$	&	\verb+a \bmod b+ \\
$\pmod{a+b}$	&	\verb-\pmod{a+b}- \\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\caption{Modulus functions}\label{fig:mods}
\end{figure}
%\nopagebreak

\begin{figure}[hbp]
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{clclclcl}
%% Delimiters (3.10, p48) (use \left, \right)
$($ & \verb+(+ & $)$ & \verb+)+ &
$[$ & \verb+[+ & $]$ & \verb+]+ \\

$\{$ & \verb+\{+ & $\}$ & \verb+\}+ &
$\lfloor$ & \verb+\lfloor+ & $\rfloor$ & \verb+\rfloor+ \\

$\lceil$ & \verb+\lceil+ & $\rceil$ & \verb+\rceil+ &
$\langle$ & \verb+\langle+ & $\rangle$ & \verb+\rangle+ \\

$/$ & \verb+/+ & $\backslash$ & \verb+\backslash+ &
$|$ & \verb+|+ & $\|$ & \verb+\|+
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\caption{Delimiters}\label{fig:delims}
\end{figure}
%\nopagebreak

\begin{figure}[hbtp]
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{clclclclcl}
%% Math Mode accents (3.11, p51)
$\hat{a}$ & \verb+\hat{a}+ & $\check{a}$ & \verb+\check{a}+ &
$\breve{a}$ & \verb+\breve{a}+ & $\acute{a}$ & \verb+\acute{a}+ &
$\grave{a}$ & \verb+\grave{a}+ \\

$\tilde{a}$ & \verb+\tilde{a}+ & $\bar{a}$ & \verb+\bar{a}+ &
$\vec{a}$ & \verb+\vec{a}+ & $\dot{a}$ & \verb+\dot{a}+ &
$\ddot{a}$ & \verb+\ddot{a}+
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\caption{Math-mode accents}\label{fig:mathacc}
\end{figure}

The symbols in Figure~\ref{fig:latexsym} were provided by \LaTeX{} 2.09, but not by
\LaTeXe.  You can access them by using the \texttt{latexsym} package.
%% Symbols that were available in latex, but in 2e only
%% with the latexsym package
\begin{figure}[hbtp]
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{clclclclcl}
$\mho$ & \verb+\mho+ & $\Join$ & \verb+\Join+ &
$\Box$ & \verb+\Box+ & $\Diamond$ & \verb+\Diamond+ &
$\leadsto$ & \verb+\leadsto+ \\

$\sqsubset$ & \verb+\sqsubset+ & $\sqsupset$ & \verb+\sqsupset+ &
$\lhd$ & \verb+\lhd+ & $\unlhd$ & \verb+\unlhd+ & $\rhd$ & \verb+\rhd+ \\

$\unrhd$ & \verb+\unrhd+
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\caption{Symbols available in the \texttt{latexsym} package}\label{fig:latexsym}
\end{figure}


%%%% \textbf{theorem,  bar,line,brace,  array, eqnarray,  label,ref
%%%%  left, right}
%\clearpage
%\pagebreak
\section{Pretty Pictures}
%\nopagebreak
\subsection{\LaTeX{}  \texttt{picture} Environment}
%\nopagebreak

You can create pictures within \LaTeX{}  using a limited set of picture
symbols.  These include \verb+vector+, \verb+line+, \verb+oval+, and
others.  They are fairly difficult to use, and you have to set them up
by hand.  For more information you should refer to the \LaTeX{}  manual.
%\nopagebreak

This picture
\fbox{\begin{picture}(80,100)(0,0)
\put(60,77){\vector(1,0){7}}
\put(60,85){$\theta^+$}
\put(60,40){\line(1,5){10}}
\put(60,40){\line(0,1){50}}
\put(60,40){\oval(40,40)[l]}
\put(60,20){\line(0,1){40}}
\put(0,40){\vector(1,0){40}}
\put(0,43){flow}
\end{picture}}
was made with the following \LaTeX{}  code.
%\nopagebreak

\begin{verbatim}
\begin{picture}(80,80)(0,0)
\put(60,77){\vector(1,0){7}}
\put(60,85){$\theta^+$}
\put(60,40){\line(1,5){10}}
\put(60,40){\line(0,1){50}}
\put(60,40){\oval(40,40)[l]}
\put(60,20){\line(0,1){40}}
\put(0,40){\vector(1,0){40}}
\put(0,43){flow}
\end{picture}
\end{verbatim}

Another way to get pictures in your \LaTeX{} document is to use plain
\TeX{} commands.  See \emph{The TeXbook} and/or ask for more
information.

%\nopagebreak
\subsection{Including \PS{} Files}
In general you are better off using a drawing program designed for the
device you will be printing on, and then using the \verb+\special+
command (or the \verb+\PSbox+ macro below) to include a
file.\footnote{The programs \texttt{tgif} and \texttt{xfig}, in the
\texttt{sipb} locker, will allow you to draw pictures and save them as
\PS{} files.  Also, the program \texttt{xv}, in the \texttt{graphics}
locker, can convert files from many popular graphics formats to
Encapsulated \PS{} format (with some loss of quality) by telling it to
save as \PS{}. See the \SIPB\ document \emph{An Inessential Guide to
Athena\/} for more information.}

If you are using a program which generates Encapsulated \PS{} Files,
you can simply use the \verb+epsf+ package, and then say
\begin{verbatim}
\epsfbox{filename.eps}
\end{verbatim}
at the place where you want the figure.  This automatically reserves
space for the \PS{} picture based on the size stored in it.  See the
\verb+dvips+ man page or one of the \LaTeX{} books for more details.

To include a non-Encapsulated \PS{} file (i.e. one written by
hand or by certain drawing programs):

\begin{enumerate} 
\item  Include the following line before the \verb+\begin{document}+.
Most of the magic is needed so that LaTeX{} knows how big the document is,
so that it can reserve space for the \PS{} figure for proper
placement and spacing.

%\newcommand{\PSbox}[3]{\mbox{\rule{0in}{#3}\special{psfile=#1}\hspace{#2}}}
\begin{small}
\begin{verbatim}
\newcommand{\PSbox}[3]{\mbox{\special{psfile=#1}\hspace{#2}\rule{0pt}{#3}}}
\end{verbatim}
\end{small}

\item If possible, generate the \PS{} file such that the picture is
flush against the bottom-left corner.  When you do this, the left-most
$\frac{1}{4}$ inch of the picture may not be printed, since although
(0,0) is at the lower-left hand corner of the page, on some printers
the left most $\frac{1}{4}$ inch part of the page isn't part of the
image area.  Don't worry about it---the missing part should be visible
when \LaTeX{}  moves it back onto the page.

\item Print out the \PS{} file.  There are two reasons for doing this.
The first is to make sure that there aren't any errors in the \PS{}.
The second reason is to get the dimensions of the picture and where it
is located on the page.  Measure the height and the width of the
picture.  Also, if the picture is not located in the lower-left-hand
corner, measure the $(x,y)$ distance from the lower-left-hand corner
of the page to lower-left-hand corner of the graphic in inches.  The
\texttt{psbb} program in the \texttt{gnu} locker can also be useful for
determining the size and offset of a postscript picture.  

\item To do the actual inclusion, do step (a) if the image is in the
lower left corner of the page.  Otherwise do step (b).

	\begin{enumerate}
\item  If the \PS{} file has the image in the lower-left-hand corner
of the page, it's really easy.  At the point where you want the picture
to be included, just use the following command:

\begin{verbatim}
\PSbox{/mit/username/filename.PS}{1.7in}{0.25in}
\end{verbatim}

Where the first argument is the filename of the \PS{} file, the
second is the width of the graphic, and the third argument is the height
of the graphic.  The dimensions can be specified in any format that
LaTeX{} accepts.  So, for example, a dimension such as ``\verb+4cm+'' will also
work.

This ``PSbox'' can be included in a figure, or anything else you want!

\item  If you were unfortunate enough as to be unable to get the graphic
in the lower-left-hand corner, you will need to do a bit more work.
Take the distance from the left-hand side of the page (which you
measured in inches, right?) and multiply by -72.  Call this number the
``hoffset''.  Take the distance from the bottom of the page to the
bottom of the graphic (also measured inches), multiply it by -72, and
call it the ``voffset''.  Then the PSbox command should be modified to
be:\hfill\break
{\small \verb+\PSbox{/mit/username/filename hoffset=+hoffset \verb+voffset=+voffset\verb+}+\verb+{+width\verb+}{+length\verb+}+}

For example, to include a file which is 4 inches high and 5 inches wide,
which is located 3 inches from the bottom of the page and 2 inches from
the left side of the page, the PSbox would be:

\begin{verbatim}
\PSbox{/mit/username/filename.PS hoffset=-144 voffset=-216}{5in}{4in}
\end{verbatim}

	\end{enumerate}
\end{enumerate}

NOTE: \verb+xdvi+ cannot show included \PS{} figures; instead, it leaves
a blank space of the correct size.  \verb+Xdvi+ will also print a
warning that says `\texttt{xdvi: special ``filename'' not implemented}'
every time you preview a page with a \PS{} figure on it.  This is
nothing to worry about---it's just reminding you that it can't preview
the \PS{} figure---it should still print out without any problems.  The
version of \verb+xdvi+ currently installed in the \verb+sipb+ and
\verb+newtex+ lockers \emph{can} preview \PS{} figures, either using
the native \DPS features (default), or by rendering the image through
another program first (the ``\verb+-nodps+'' option).  This feature
still has some problems, and in some circumstances X server bugs could
caused you to be logged out without warning.  As always, we recommend
that you save your files early and often.

If you want to see where the \PS{} picture will appear, you can
change the \verb+\mbox+ in the definition of \verb+\PSbox+ to
\verb+\fbox+.  In other words, you'd change the line

%%% ALERT: wtf??? commented out stuff in verbatim

%\newcommand{\PSbox}[3]{\mbox{\rule{0in}{#3}\special{psfile=#1}\hspace{#2}}}
\begin{verbatim}
\newcommand{\PSbox}[3]{\mbox{\special{psfile=#1}\hspace{#2}\rule{0pt}{#3}}}
\end{verbatim}

\noindent in your document to be:
\begin{small}
\begin{verbatim}
\newcommand{\PSbox}[3]{\fbox{\special{psfile=#1}\hspace{#2}\rule{0pt}{#3}}}
\end{verbatim}
\end{small}
Assuming that you have specified the arguments to \verb+\PSbox+ correctly, this
will result in a box being drawn around the area where the \PS{}
image will appear.  However, when you print your \LaTeX{}  document, the box
will appear on the printed output as well.  You will need to change the
\verb+\fbox+ back to \verb+\mbox+ and run \LaTeX{}  again on your file
to make the box go away when you want to print your final copy.

\paragraph{Other Tricks}
You can also shrink and scale your \PS{} figures.  For example, if
you wanted to include your figure shrunk by half in each direction, you
would use:

\begin{verbatim}
 \PSbox{/mit/username/filename.PS hscale=50 vscale=50}{1in}{1in}
\end{verbatim}

\noindent (with the dimensions being the size of the figure once it
has been scaled to half size in each direction).  Note that it's
possible to shrink your figure in one direction and not the other; in
most cases, though, you want to scale it equally both horizontally and
vertically. The scale factors are percentages, which is why the
example uses 50 for one half.

The \texttt{ps2epsi} program, found in the \texttt{gnu} locker, can be
used to convert \PS{} files into Encapsulated \PS{}.


%%% ALERT: this should probably just Go Away(tm) or something.
%
% \def\PICTEX{Pic\TeX{}}
% \subsection{\PICTEX}
%
% \PICTEX, a complicated drawing system, is also available.  Contact
% the \SIPB\footnote{The \SIPB\ is at 253-7788, or stop by our office in
% W20-557} for more details.

\section{Setting Page Layout Parameters}

\input{layout-truncated}
\LaTeX{}  uses many parameters to layout a page.  These parameters set
the distance between the main text and margin notes, headers, and
footers, among other things.  To change the value of one of these
parameters, you can use the \verb+\addtolength+ commands described in
subsection~\ref{sec:margins}.  Figure~\ref{fig:layout} shows the
layout for a printed page reduced to 65\% of full size.

\section{Converting from \LaTeX{} 2.09 to \LaTeXe}\label{sec:2.09}
Converting documents from \LaTeX{} 2.09 format to \LaTeXe format is
fairly simple.  The primary differences are that the \verb+\documentstyle+
command has been replaced with the \verb+\documentclass+ command and
that outside packages are included with the \verb+usepackage+ command.
Another change is that the commands such as \verb+{\tt}+ have been superseded by
the commands of the form \verb+\texttt{}+.  \LaTeXe also added the
\verb+\textsuperscript+ command for use in normal text as an alternative
to using math mode to generate superscripted text.  See
Section~\ref{sec:more_info} for several additional sources of information
which are useful in converting documents.



% \section{Similarities between \SCRIBE\ and \LaTeX{} }
% Many \SCRI and \LaTeX{}  commands are quite similar.  If you are
% unfamiliar with \SCRIBE\, don't bother to learn about it; this section
% is intended to help those unfortunate souls who already have \SCRIBE\
% experience and are trying to learn \LaTeX{}  and convert their old
% documents.

% \begin{tt}
% \begin{tabular}{ll}
% \textbf{{\SCRIBE\}} & \textbf{{\LaTeX{} }} \\
% @make(article) & \verb+\documentclass{article}+ \\
% @make(report) & \verb+\documentclass{report}+ \\
% @style(size=11) & \verb+\documentclass[11pt]{article}+ \\
% @begin(mode) & \verb+\begin{mode}+ \\
% @end(mode) & \verb+\end{mode}+ \\
% @i(italics) & \verb+\emph{italics}+ \\
% @verbatim(xyz) & \verb_\verb+xyz+_ \\
% @section(...) & \verb_\section{...}_ \\
% \end{tabular}
% \end{tt}

% \clearpage


\section{Where to Get More Information}
\label{sec:more_info}

The \emph{\LaTeX{}  User's Guide \& Reference Manual\/} is a very useful
book which goes into much more detail than we have attempted here, for
those who wish to delve deeper into the intricacies of \LaTeX{}.  It
is highly recommended, and not very expensive, at least as far as
reference books go.  Since Athena officially supports \LaTeX{}, you
can ask questions about it using \verb+olc+, and look through the OLC
Stock Answers for the answers to other commonly asked questions.  You
may also wish to look at the online version of the \LaTeX{} user's
guide, which is particularly useful when converting documents to
\LaTeXe{} format.  It is found at\\
\texttt{/afs/sipb.mit.edu/project/tex/share/texmf/doc/latex/base/usrguide.dvi}.


You can also come by the \SIPB\ office (in W20-557, just outside the
Student Center cluster), or call us on the phone (253-7788),
particularly if you have a more obscure or complicated question.  As a
last resort, \emph{The~\TeX book\/} describes the \TeX{} typesetting
system, which forms the basis for \LaTeX{}.  It is significantly harder
to understand than the \LaTeX{} manual.


\section{Acknowledgments}

The original version of this document was written by Mark Eichin to
give people a handy reference to the many symbols that \LaTeX{} \
supports, especially the math mode symbols.  Most of his text and all
of his tables were included in the guide that you are holding now.

The rest of the first edition of the guide was written and edited by
Nancy Gilman, David Jedlinsky and Mary Vogt, with lots of comments
(flamage) from \SIPB\ members and other people who experimented with
the early versions of the guide.  Robert French perfected this
document to produce Revision 1.

Later, Chee Chew, added more changes (with more input/flamage from
\SIPB\ members) to produce Revision 2.

Revision 3 was updated by Mark Eichin to
cover the replacement of \verb+dvi2ps+ by the superior \verb+dvips+,
to acknowledge Athena's support of \LaTeX{}, and to include further
\SIPB\ member comments.  Subsequent changes have been made by Richard
Barbalace, bert Dvornik, and Chad Brown, with the cheerful support of
many \SIPB\ members and prospectives.

Revision 4 was updated by Alex Rolfe to reflect the adoption of
\LaTeXe as the default version on Athena.

Thanks to John Kohl and Jean Marie Diaz for getting most of the
original \TeX{} and \LaTeX{} system running on Athena in the first
place; without their efforts, this guide would be useless.

And, of course, thanks to Don Knuth, the author of \TeX{}, and Leslie
Lamport, the author of \LaTeX{};  they have done an incredible
% ``incredible'' but not necessarily ``good''... yes, I'm being snide =)
job.

\end{document}
