homepageRegardless of your individual sport, it is well documented that the human body prefers carbohydrate. Carbohydrate nutrition provides an energy source for building glycogen stores in muscle. An athlete that can relie on a consistent source of glycogen will have less muscle tissue breakdown and with proper training, greater potential for muscle tissue growth. A balanced high carbohydrate diet results in more immediate energy available for training and competition. Availability of stored energy sources play a crucial role in athletic performance. The intensity and duration of the athletic event or exercise influences the muscle's choice and utilization of fuels.
There are three forms of energy sources in the body: carbohydrate (glycogen), protein (muscle tissue), and fat. Factors such as exercise intensity and duration, fitness level and diet all influence the mix of energy source the body will relie upon.
The intensity of the exercise is particularly important in determining the muscle's energy source. High-intensity, short-duration exercise (such as sprinting - anaerobic pathway) only uses glucose (blood sugar) for fuel, derived primarily from the breakdown of muscle glycogen. When glucose is broken down anaerobically, muscle glycogen is used 18 to 19 times faster than when glucose is broken down aerobically. Extended, mixed anaerobic and aerobic, intermittent exercise such as soccer, basketball, football drills, and running or swimming intervals, also result in a greater breakdown of muscle glycogen. Muscle glycogen is the predominant fuel for most types of exercise. It takes 30 to 60 minutes for fat to be available to the muscles as fuel in the form of free fatty acids. Most athletes train at an exercise intensity that is too great which prevents fat from being used as fuel. (When less oxygen is available during high intensity exercises (greater than 70% maximum) it is a distinct advantage for the muscle to use carbohydrate (glucose) because less oxygen is required.)
Duration of the exercise determines whether the fuel used will be mostly glycogen or fat. The longer the activity the greater the contribution of fat as fuel. Fat can supply as much as 70% of the energy needs for moderate intensity exercise lasting 4 to 6 hours. As the duration of the exercise increases, the intensity must decrease. When muscle glycogen stores are low, fat breakdown supplies most of the energy needed for exercise. Fat can only be used as fuel when the exerciser is working at or below 60% capacity.
The athlete's aerobic capacity will also determine what fuel the muscles use during exercise. Endurance training increases the athlete's ability to perform more aerobically at the same absolute level of exercise. As an individual becomes more aerobically fit (through endurance training) they will use more fat and less carbohydrate energy (glycogen) when working at the same exercise level. The point at which lactic acid accumulates is called the anaerobic threshold and is usually expressed as a percentage of aerobic capacity. Trained individuals start to accumulate lactic acid at about 70% of their aerobic capacity. Untrained people start to accumulate lactic acid in blood at about 50% of aerobic capacity. Lactic acid speeds up the rate of muscle glycogen breakdown by interfering with the use of fat as fuel. A higher anaerobic threshold is one reason that fit individuals use more fat and less oxygen. Endurance training increases the capacity of the aerobic pathway in the mitochondria to break down fat for energy. When more fat is burned, less muscle glycogen is used. This glycogen-sparing effect of fat utilization is advantageous during prolonged exercise because the muscle glycogen depletion limits performance. Endurance training also increases the capacity of the muscles to store glycogen. Untrained individuals have muscle glycogen stores that are roughly 80 to 90 mmol/kg. Trained individuals have muscle glycogen stores of about 130 to 135 mmol/kg. Thus endurance training has a dual performance advantage: the muscle glycogen stores are higher at the onset of exercise, and the athlete depletes them at a slower rate.
The amount of carbohydrate and fat in the diet also determine the amount of glycogen and fat used as fuel. If the diet is high in carbohydrate, the athlete will use more glycogen as fuel. Although the goal is to increase the availablity of fat as fuel through endurance training, this does not mean that athletes should eat a high fat diet. Even the leanest athletes store more fat than they will ever need during exercise. * A high-fat diet compromises carbohydrate intake which lowers muscle glycogen stores and reduces the athlete's ability to sustain high-intensity exercise. Low muscle glycogen stores also limit endurance. Thus the ideal diet supplies less than 30% of total calories from fat and 60-70% as carbohydrates to ensure optimal muscle glycogen stores.
Glycogen stores are depleted in several ways. During long endurance activities (exceeding 90 minutes) muscle glycogen stores become progressively lower. As they drop to a very low level, the exercise intensity cannot be maintained and the athlete must either stop or drastically reduce the pace. A second way inwhich glycogen stores become depleted is in a more gradual process, occuring over repeated days of training, when muscle glycogen breakdown is greater than its replacement. This latter change may influence more athletes than that of longer events. Glycogen stores can continue to drop with each successive day, and the athlete has difficulty maintaining the same training intensity. It is common to feel sluggish when muscle glycogen is depleted and athletes refer to this sensation as staleness. There is the tendency to blame changes on overtraining and not the diet. This fatigue may be a result of inadequate carbohydrate consumption or dehydration.
A food exchange system is a commonly used to design diets. It also can be a useful guide in evaluation your own diet. This allows you to estimate your total calorie intake and its general content for percentage of carbohydrate, protein and fat.
MILK 90-150 calories BREAD/GRAINS 80 calories Non-Fat 15 gm carbohydrate 12 gm carbohydrate 3 gm protein 8 gm protein 0 gm fat 0 gm fat * 1 slice bread * 1 cup skim milk, nonfat *1 6- inch tortilla Low-Fat *1/2 cup pasta 12 gm carbohydrate *1/2 bagel, 1/2 English muffin 8 gm protein *3 cups popcorn, popped,(plain) 5 gm fat *1/2 cup bran flakes * 1 cup 2% milk, plain low-fat yogurt *1/2 cup corn High-Fat *1 small potato 2 gm carbohydrate *2 pancakes ( add 1 fat) 8 gm protein *1 waffle (add 1 fat) 8 gm fat * 1 cup whole milk FRUITS 60 calories 15 gm carbohydrate MEAT AND SUBSTITUTES 0 gm protein Lean Meat 55 calories 0 gm fat 0 gm carbohydrate * 1 apple, orange, pear, sm banana 7 gm protein * 1/3 cantaloupe 3 gm fat * 1/2 cup juice * 1 oz lean beef (sirloin) * 1 oz lean pork (tenderloin) VEGETABLES 25 calories * 1 oz poultry without skin 5 gm carbohydrate * 1 oz fish 2 gm protein Medium-Fat Meat 75 calories 0 gm fat 0 gm carbohydrate * 1/2 cup cooked vegetables 7 gm protein * 1 cup raw vegetables 5 gm fat * 1/2 cup vegetable juice * 1 oz ground been FAT 45 calories * 1 oz part skim mozzarella, ricotta 0 gm carbohydrate * 4 oz tofu 0 gm protein * 1 egg 5 gm fat High-Fat Meat 100 calories * 20 small peanuts 0 gm carbohydrate * 1 tsp. oil 7 gm protein * 1 slice bacon 8 gm fat *1 Tbsp cream cheese *1 oz cheese, cold cuts, spare ribs *1 tsp oil, butter, margarine *1 Tbsp peanut butter, 1 hotdog *1 Tbsp cream cheese NUMBER OF EXCHANGES CALORIE LEVEL FOOD GROUP 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 Milk 3 3 4 4 4 4 Meat 5 5 5 5 6 6 Fruit 5 6 7 9 10 12 Vegetable 3 3 3 5 6 7 Grain 7 11 16 18 2 0 24 Fat 2 3 5 6 8 10 EXAMPLE: 3000 calorie training diet source of carbohydrate: Milk 4 exchange x 12 gm carbohydrates = 48g Fruit 9 exchange x 15 gm carbihydrates = 135 g Vegetables 5 exchange x 5 g carbohydrates = 25g Grains 18 exchanges x 15g carbohydrates = 270 g 478 grams carbohydrate x 4 calories/ gram = 1912 calories from carbohydrates 1912/3000 = .637x 100 = 63.7 % carbohydrates
The food exchange system show the amount of protein, carbohyrate, fat, and calories in one serving from each exchange list. This above example contains exchange plans for different caloire levels (from 1500 to 4000 calorie). These exchange plans are designed to supply about 60 % carbohydrate, 15% to 20 % protein and less than 35% fat. Because the milk, bread/grains, and fruit exchanges have the most carbohydrate per serving, they are emphasized. These exchange plans will meet the carbohydrate needs of most athletes. Athletes should be consuming 5 gram of carbohydrates per kilogram body weight. Sample menus including high carbohydrate diets are available.
*Cool
*Absorb quickly
*Low in sodium
*Contain 6-8% glucose or sucrose
*Provide energy to working muscles
*Do not cause stomach cramps, nausea or diarrhea
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Water is essential for many functions in the body. It is a component of all cells, aids in the elimination of body wastes, serves as a lubricant , and transports nutritents and gases. Water plays a key role in athletic performance by maintaining blood volume, which is necessary for cardiovascular function and for regulating body temperature.
Fluid balance maintains the blood volume required to supply extra blood to the skin for body temperature regulation. Exercise produces heat, which must be eliminated from the body to maintain appropriate body temperature. The body's system for converting potential (or chemically bound) energy from oxygen and nutrients into mechanical energy is less than 100% efficient; only about one-third of this potential energy is converted to by-products, including carbon dioxide and heat. Most of the heat generated by exercising muscle transfers to the blood, circulation through the body and raising core body temperature. The amount of heat produced during exercise, even in physically fit individuals, is enough to raise core body temperatures by 1 degree celsius every 5 to 8 minutes. Without effective means to dissipate this heat, moderate-intensity exercise could raise body temperatures to lethal levels in 15 to 30 minutes. The body maintains appropriate temperatures, however, by means of a system referred to as thermoregulation. During exercise, heat is transferred from the muscle via blood to the body core. Increased body core temperature results in increased blood flow to skin, where in moderate ambient temperatures heat is transferred to the environment by convection, radiation and evaportation. Heat transfer by convection and radiation reverses in warm to hot temperatures, meaning that the body must dissipate heat absorbed from the environment as well as that produced internally. When this occurs, the body must rely solely on evaporation of sweat to maintain appropriate body temperatures. Thus maintaining adequate hydration to support evaporation of sweat becomes crucial when ambient temperature reach or exceed 36 degrees celsius. Air humidity affects the body's ability to dissipate heat to a greater extent than air temperature. As humidity increases the rate at which sweat evaporates decreases, meaning that more sweat drips off the body without transferring heat from the body to the environment. When combined effect of environment conditions and metabolic heat loads is sufficiently high, the termoregulatory system is unable to cope adequately. Ensuring adequate fluid intake is one of the key elementas of managing risk of heat stress.
Thirst, which is a physiological response to hypohydration, occurs when body water loss reaches about 1% of body weight. At body water losses around 3% to 4% of body weight, physical performance can be impaired. For example, a 150lb individual with water losses of 2 L (about 4 1/2 lbs) may impair performance. Sweat losses can be up to 3 L/ hour during exercise.
Symptoms of dehydration: Progressive Fluid Loss 5% - 6% body weight loss thirst impairs body temperature regulation dizziness loss of appetite increases pulse and respiratory rate mental confusion lethargy increasing weakness anxiety heat exhaution nausea heat stroke irritability death
Dehydration impairs the body's ability to dissipate heat and can cause an elevated internal body temperature. Some scientists believe less oxygen may be delivered to the muscles. Other studies suggest work capacity decreases. It has been hypothesized that impaired performance might be related either to altered anaerobic function or to impaired themoregulation.
THIRST IS AN UNRELIABLE INDICATOR OF HOW MUCH FLUID TO DRINK. One
immediate effect of exercise can be a blunted thirst sensation. It is possible
to for thirst to be quenced before the body completely rehydrates.
*NOTE: Some athletes experience hypohydration from fluid losses
accumulated over several days of exercise.
The Rate of Gastric Emptying: The rate your stomach empties its contents into the small intestines is a primary factor limiting fluid absorption and it is influenced by the type of beverage you drink. The rate your stomach empties depends upon: Beverage temperature, emotional state, osmolality, menstrual cycle, sodium content , environmental conditions, pH. Sugar and sodium content of beverages greatly increase fluid absorption. The wrong beverage could actually dehydrate an athlete and impair performance. A 6% - 8% carbohydrate fluid enters the bloodstream at the same rate as water and provides energy to working muscles. Carbohydrate solutions greater than 10% often cause abdominal cramps nausea and diarrhea. (soda contains 10-12% carbohydrate) Sodium levels should not exceed 140millequivalents per liter of solution, this is the same concentration as the sodium in the body.
Water is inexpensive, readily available, and an effective fluid anytime
preceding exercise. Sugar-sweetened soft drinks, fruit juices, and sport
drinks elevate blood glucose and hence insulin levels. Ultimately this can
cause rebound hypoglycemia, which decreases fat breakdown and causes the need
for more valuable glycogen reserves to be used. Studies on athletic performance
report either beneficial or inconsequencial effects of preexercise carbohydrate
beverages. Individual responses to carbohydrate beverages should be
considered. It would be wise to test individual responses to preexercise
carbohydrate intake during daily training sessions. Interindividual variations
are great. It is advised that drinking fluids during exercise is as much an
art as a science and that athletes should always be attentive to their own
experiences. An additional consideration when choosing a fluid is the intensity
and duration of the althetic event. Plain, moderately cold water not only
cools core body temperature but also leaves the stomach faster than warm fluids
or overconcentrated beverages. Water is an appropriate fluid replacement in
all athletic events. Some endurance athletes may benefit from additional
carbohydrate ingestion. Fructose causes only mild hyperinsulinemia when
compared to other simple sugars and some studies show ingestion may delay
fatigue in activities that last longer than 2 to 3 hours.
* 2 1/2 liters of water are required each day in a sedentary individuals
in a normal environment.
Calcium is essential for building bones and teeth as well as for blood clotting, nerve stimulation, and muscle contraction. When calcium-rich foods are not consumed regularly, the body draws on its stored calcium from the bones for its immediate needs. Over an extended period of years, this can deplete the bones of calcium, and increases your risk of having a condition known as osteoporosis or "porous bones". Research continues to find evidence that calcium and Vitamin D strengthens bones. By 1993 their case was so strong that the FDA ruled that food and supplement labels could state that calcium can help prevent osteoporosis, the disease of fragile bones. Use the provided infomation to determine if you are getting the amount of calcium you need everyday.
AGE NATIONAL RECOMMENDED
OSTEOPOROSIS DIETARY
FOUNDATION ALLOWANCES
1-10 years 800 mg 800 mg
11-24 years 1200 mg 1200 mg
25+ years 1000 mg 800 mg
Post-menopausal women
not taking estrogen 1500 mg recommendation have
not been specified for this group
Pregnant or lactating women 1200 mg 1200 mg
FOOD CALCIUM PROTEIN FAT CALORIES
(mg) (gm) (gm)
MILK
1 cup skim milk 302 8.4 .4 86
1 cup 1% milk 300 8.1 2.6 102
1 cup 2% milk 297 8.0 4.7 121
1 cup whole milk 290 8.0 9 157
1 cup choc milk 280 7.9 8.5 208
1 cup soy milk 10 6.6 4.6 79
1 cup goat milk 326 8.7 10 168
1 cup buttermilk 285 8.1 2.2 99
1 cup lactaid (sk) 302 8.4 4 86
1 cup lactaid (1%) 300 8.0 2.6 102
1/4 cup dry skim milk 377 8.8 2 109
1/4 cup dry whole milk 291 8.4 8.2 150
1 cup eggnog,
nonalcoholic 342 9.7 19 342
NOTE: Yogurts vary in fat, sugar,
YOGURT calorie and calcium content. Read
labels carefully to compare their
1 cup fruit flavored 314 9 2.6 225 nutritional quality. Try to
(lowfat) choose those with less fat and
1 cup plain flavored 355 13 .4 127 sugar.
(skim milk)
1 cup plain flavored 274 7.9 7.4 139
(whole milk)
Warning: Fruit flavored yogurts may contain a large sugar content. Every 4 grams of sugar listed is equal to one teaspoon of sugar. If the label reads Sugar 34 gms it contains 8 1/2 teaspoons of sugar!
FOOD CALCIUM(mg) FOOD CALCIUM(mg) Wonder Calcium Enriched Bread (2 slices) 580 Tofu (3 oz) 150 Lactaid Calcium Fortified Nonfat milk (1 cup) 500 Sherbet, orange(1cup) 103 yogurt, nonfat, plain (1 cup) 500 Turnip greens (1/2 cup cooked, chopped) 99 Milk, skim, protein-fortified (1 cup) 352 kale, frozen (1/2 cup cooked) 90 Tropicana Season's Best Orange Soybeans (1/2 cup cooked) 88 Juice Plus Calcium ( 1 cup) 333 Bok choy (1/2 cup cooked) 79 Milk, skim, regular (1 cup) 302 Lowfat (2%) cottage cheese (1/2 cup) 77 Swiss Cheese (1 oz) 204 Parmesan cheese, grated (1 Tbs) 69 Total Cereal (3/4 cup) 250 orange ( 1 medium) 52 Cheddar cheese (1 oz) 204 Swiss chard or kale (1/2 cup coked, chopped) 49 Sardines, canned in water, drained (2 oz) 185 Bread, white or whole wheat (2 slices) 47 Collards, frozen (1/2 cup cooked) 179 Pinto beans (1/2 cup cooked) 41 Ricotta cheese, part-skim(1/4 cup 169 Broccoli (1/2 cup cooked, chopped) 36 Ice cream or ice milk (1 cup) 164 Sweet potato, baked (1 medium) 32
1 cup whole milk = 290mg calcuim 3/4 cup milk = 1 slice cheddar cheese (1 oz) 2/3 cup milk = 3 oz salmon (with bones) 1/2 cup milk = 1/2 cup custard or milk pudding;1/2 cup greens, cooked; 4 oz tofu 1/3 cup milk = 1/2 cup cottage cheese 1/4 cup milk 1/2 cup ice cream; 1 cup dried beans, cooked
Calcium supplements are considered by many individuals who find it difficult to consistently maintain the recommended calcium level in their diet. If you wish to use a calcium supplement the below information may be useful to you.
The best calcium supplement is calcium carbonate. With the lowest lead content it provides the most calcuim per tablet (as much as 500-600mg) therefore maximizing your dollar value. Read labels carefully to determine the amount of elemental calcium the supplement contains. 'Elemental' tells you how much calcium rather than carbonate you are getting- it's the only number that means anything. For example, Tums contains 1250 mg
Absorption is best when calcium is taken in small quanities. High levels of phosphorus in foods can keep the body from using calcium. That's why the FDA won't allow high-phosphorus foods to make claims about calcium reducing the risk of osteoporosis. That includes low-fat processed cheeses that are made with sodium phosphate.
Oxalic acid interfers with calcium absorption in some foods more than others. Only 5% of the calcium in spinach is absorbed compared to about 40% of the calcium in milk or in a vegetable like kale that's low in oxalic acid. Researchers think that something else in spinach compounds the problem, because pure oxalic acid doesn't impair absorption as much as spinach. The calcium in chocolate milk is well-absorbed, even though cocoa powder contains some oxalic acid.
It is best to think of supplements as an addition to an already health diet rather than a substitution for good eating habits. Nutrition is a science that continues to be studied for the many unknown interactions of nutrients. Balance of pleasurable nutritous foods (rather than individually manufactured minerals and vitamins) is important to consider not only because of what we do know about the science of nutrittion, but also for what we may someday discover.
Many female athletes, especially long-distance runners, dancers, or gymnasts who must also maintain low body weight, may become amenorrheic. Amennorrheia leads to a reduction in bone mineral content. These athletes should be encouraged to eat a diet which meets the RDA for calcium, but there is no evidence increasing calcium intake above the RDA will offset loss in bone mass. However, reduction in training, a well balanced diet and possibly a gain in body weight will promote the return of menstration and lead to an increase in bone density. Caution: Excessive protein intake may lead to elevated calcium excretion . A high protien diet combine with a low calcium intake may accelerate osteoporosis.
Iron is an important mineral for maintaining optimal health. It combines with a protein in your blood called hemoglobin, which carries oxygen from your lungs to the tissues in your body. Iron also combines with a similar protein called myoglobin, which carries oxygen to the muscle cells only. In a healthy adult body, there are about 3 to5 grams of iron. In iron deficiency anemia, there are not enough red blood cells produced. This is one of the most common chronic diseases of mankind; an estimated 18 million or more Americans are iron deficient.
Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA) Children (4-10years): 10mg Adolescents(11-18 years): 18mg Males (19+ years): 10 mg Female (19-50 years): 18mg Pregnant/Lactating: 18+ mg Females (51+ years: 10mg
There is an increase in iron needs for adolescents and menstruating, pregnant, or lactating women. Iron needs are also increased during illness to promote healing and may be increased for athletes.
The U.S.RDA for iron is 18 mg, which is the highest value recommended for this nutrient. The USRDA is the standard used to label food. Therefore, if a food provides 20 percent of the USRDA for iron, it has 3.6 mg of iron (.20 x 18 mg of iron = 3.6 mg of iron).
There are two types of iron available in foods: heme iron and nonheme iron. Both heme iron and nonheme iron is found in vegetables, fruits, and grains. Certain factors affect the absorption of iron; for example, heme iron is absorbed better than nonheme iron. Also, foods rich in vitamin C increase iron uptake by keeping the iron in a more available chemical form. On the other hand, some food components bind to nonheme iron so
1 cup orange juice 1 cup oatmeal 1 banana 1 cup low-fat milk 2 slices wheat bread 2 tsp blueberry jam
2 slices rye bread 3 oz turkey 1 oz mozzarella cheese lettuce, tomato, mustard 1 cup apple juice 1 orange 1 cup fruit sorbet
4 graham crackers 1 cup low-fat milk 1 apple
2 cups spaghetti 2/3 cup tomato sauce, with mushrooms 2 tbsp. parmesan cheese 2 slices French bread 1/2 cup broccoli 1/2 cup ice cream with 3/4 cup strawberries
3 cups popcorn, air popped 2 tsp butter
CALORIES: 2500
70% Carbohydrate 14% Protein 16% Fat
BREAKFAST FAT FIBER CALORIES Pumpkin Muffin 1 5 4 160 Jam (2 tsp) 0 0 30 Orange Juice(1 cup) 0 0 120 SNACK Nectarine 1 0 3.5 60 Banana 1 0 2 60 LUNCH Pasta Primavera (2 cups) 10.5 7 365 Spinach salad (2 cup) 0 3 60 (1c spinach, 1/4c carrots, broccoli, red peppers, mushrooms, tomato wedges) nonfat dressing SNACK Fruited yogurt (8oz) 0 0 100 Bagel(1) 0 1 210 (lite cream cheese 1 oz) 3 0 65 DINNER Vegetarian Chili (9oz) 3 12 and rice (3/4 cup) 0 1.5 607 nonfat crackers (6) 0 0 80 SNACK Peach sorbet (1/2 cup) 0 0 100
Calories 2017
Fat 21.5 grams Fiber 34 grams
(only 10% of total daily calories are fat calories)
The question of how much protein an athlete should consume has been researched and debated for years. In the early part of this century, studies indicated that carbohydrate and lipids were the most important exercise fuels and that exercise had little effect on protein needs. Recent data with new experimental technology has determined that dietary protein needs may increase with regular exercise. Exercise-induced increased protein requirements may be a: 1. direct result of changes in metabolism 2. an indirect result of insufficient calorie intake.
Factors that play a role in determining how much protein is used during an exercise session: 1. Type of exercise 4. Duration of exercise 2. Frequency of exercise 5. Whether one is exercise trained 3. Intensity of exercise 6. Environmental conditions 7. Energy content of diet
Endurance exercise require more protein to repair damaged muscle fibers and provide additional calories. Strength exercises require more calories to maintain muscle tissue and provide for additional growth. If these additional calories are not provided protein eaten will be used as am immediate energy source and decreases in muscle mass and strength may occur.
Too frequent training leads to reduced gains or even decreases in muscle mass and strength.
When the intensity of the activity is increased the amount of protein used is also increased.
Exercise greater than 60 minutes increases protein breakdown due to a decrease in carbohydrate fuel, which will cause the body to relie more heavily on protein fuel.
Protein needs may increase during the first 10 days of starting an exercise program while the body is adapting to the changes. After 2-3 weeks of daily exercise these needs will return to normal.
Both internal and external envirnmental conditional influence protein needs.
Calorie (energy) needs must be met to spare the breakdown of muscle tissue. If too few calories are consumed the athlete may experience a decrease in muscle mass and strength.
Endurance athletes should consume 12-15% of their total calories from protein. Protein needs can be calculated by multiplying 1.0- 1.4 grams of protein per kilogram body weight (refer to the following chart calculations) Strength athletes with short bouts of extreme intensity use mostly carbohydrate for fuel. Protein should also provide 12-15% of their total calories.
Increase stress on the liver and kidney Increase amonia and urea levels (toxicity levels increase) * Increase fluid needs- greater potential for dehydration Increase nitrogen residuals- nitrogen by products are toxic and less glyocen can be stored when there is excess protein. * Metabolism of protein requires more water than carbohydrate or fat. As dietary protein increases, water intake is recommended to minimize dehydration effects.
Caution: if high levels of protein are being used be sure to increase fluid.
Amino acids continuously breakdown and resythesize. Excess amino acids are oxidized for energy or stored as fat.