9 9 _W_r_i_t_i_n_g _P_a_p_e_r_s _w_i_t_h _N_R_O_F_F _u_s_i_n_g -_m_e _E_r_i_c _P. _A_l_l_m_a_n* Project INGRES Electronics Research Laboratory University of California, Berkeley Berkeley, California 94720 This document describes the text processing facilities available on the UNIX|- operating system via NROFF|- and the -me macro package. It is assumed that the reader already is gen- erally familiar with the UNIX operating system and a text editor such as _e_x. This is intended to be a casual introduction, and as such not all material is covered. In particular, many variations and additional features of the -me macro package are not explained. For a complete discussion of this and other issues, see _T_h_e -_m_e _R_e_f_e_r_e_n_c_e _M_a_n_u_a_l and _T_h_e _N_R_O_F_F/_T_R_O_F_F _R_e_f_e_r_e_n_c_e _M_a_n_u_a_l. NROFF, a computer program that runs on the UNIX operating system, reads an input file prepared by the user and outputs a formatted paper suitable for publication or framing. The input consists of _t_e_x_t, or words to be printed, and _r_e_q_u_e_s_t_s, which give instructions to the NROFF program telling how to format the printed copy. Section 1 describes the basics of text processing. Section 2 describes the basic requests. Section 3 introduces displays. Annotations, such as footnotes, are handled in section 4. The more complex requests which are not discussed in section 2 are covered in section 5. Finally, section 6 discusses things you will need to know if you want to typeset documents. If you are a novice, you probably won't want to read beyond section 4 until you have tried some of the basic features out. ____________________ 9 *Author's current address: Britton Lee, Inc., 1919 Addison Suite 105, Berkeley, California 94704. |-UNIX is a trademark of AT&T Bell Laboratories 9Writing Papers with NROFF using -me USD:22-1 USD:22-2 Writing Papers with NROFF using -me When you have your raw text ready, call the NROFF formatter by typing as a request to the UNIX shell: nroff -me -T_t_y_p_e _f_i_l_e_s where _t_y_p_e describes the type of terminal you are outputting to. Common values are _d_t_c for a DTC 300s (daisy-wheel type) printer and _l_p_r for the line printer. If the -_T flag is omitted, a "lowest common denominator" terminal is assumed; this is good for previewing output on most terminals. A complete description of options to the NROFF command can be found in _T_h_e _N_R_O_F_F/_T_R_O_F_F _R_e_f_e_r_e_n_c_e _M_a_n_u_a_l. The word _a_r_g_u_m_e_n_t is used in this manual to mean a word or number which appears on the same line as a request which modifies the meaning of that request. For example, the request .sp spaces one line, but .sp 4 spaces four lines. The number _4 is an _a_r_g_u_m_e_n_t to the ._s_p request which says to space four lines instead of one. Arguments are separated from the request and from each other by spaces. _1. _B_a_s_i_c_s _o_f _T_e_x_t _P_r_o_c_e_s_s_i_n_g The primary function of NROFF is to _c_o_l_l_e_c_t words from input lines, _f_i_l_l output lines with those words, _j_u_s_t_i_f_y the right hand margin by inserting extra spaces in the line, and output the result. For example, the input: Now is the time for all good men to come to the aid of their party. Four score and seven years ago,... will be read, packed onto output lines, and justified to pro- duce: Now is the time for all good men to come to the aid of their party. Four score and seven years ago,... Sometimes you may want to start a new output line even though the line you are on is not yet full; for example, at the end of a paragraph. To do this you can cause a _b_r_e_a_k, which starts a new output line. Some requests cause a break automatically, as do blank input lines and input lines begin- ning with a space. Writing Papers with NROFF using -me USD:22-3 Not all input lines are text to be formatted. Some of the input lines are _r_e_q_u_e_s_t_s which describe how to format the text. Requests always have a period or an apostrophe ("'") as the first character of the input line. The text formatter also does more complex things, such as automatically numbering pages, skipping over page folds, put- ting footnotes in the correct place, and so forth. I can offer you a few hints for preparing text for input to NROFF. First, keep the input lines short. Short input lines are easier to edit, and NROFF will pack words onto longer lines for you anyhow. In keeping with this, it is helpful to begin a new line after every period, comma, or phrase, since common corrections are to add or delete sen- tences or phrases. Second, do not put spaces at the end of lines, since this can sometimes confuse the NROFF processor. Third, do not hyphenate words at the end of lines (except words that should have hyphens in them, such as "mother-in- law"); NROFF is smart enough to hyphenate words for you as needed, but is not smart enough to take hyphens out and join a word back together. Also, words such as "mother-in-law" should not be broken over a line, since then you will get a space where not wanted, such as "mother- in-law". _2. _B_a_s_i_c _R_e_q_u_e_s_t_s _2._1. _P_a_r_a_g_r_a_p_h_s Paragraphs are begun by using the ._p_p request. For example, the input: .pp Now is the time for all good men to come to the aid of their party. Four score and seven years ago,... produces a blank line followed by an indented first line. The result is: Now is the time for all good men to come to the aid of their party. Four score and seven years ago,... Notice that the sentences of the paragraphs _m_u_s_t _n_o_t begin with a space, since blank lines and lines beginning with spaces cause a break. For example, if I had typed: 9 9 USD:22-4 Writing Papers with NROFF using -me .pp Now is the time for all good men to come to the aid of their party. Four score and seven years ago,... The output would be: Now is the time for all good men to come to the aid of their party. Four score and seven years ago,... A new line begins after the word "men" because the second line began with a space character. There are many fancier types of paragraphs, which will be described later. _2._2. _H_e_a_d_e_r_s _a_n_d _F_o_o_t_e_r_s Arbitrary headers and footers can be put at the top and bottom of every page. Two requests of the form ._h_e _t_i_t_l_e and ._f_o _t_i_t_l_e define the titles to put at the head and the foot of every page, respectively. The titles are called _t_h_r_e_e-_p_a_r_t titles, that is, there is a left- justified part, a centered part, and a right-justified part. To separate these three parts the first character of _t_i_t_l_e (whatever it may be) is used as a delimiter. Any character may be used, but backslash and double quote marks should be avoided. The percent sign is replaced by the current page number whenever found in the title. For exam- ple, the input: .he ''%'' .fo 'Jane Jones''My Book' results in the page number centered at the top of each page, "Jane Jones" in the lower left corner, and "My Book" in the lower right corner. _2._3. _D_o_u_b_l_e _S_p_a_c_i_n_g NROFF will double space output text automatically if you use the request ._l_s _2, as is done in this section. You can revert to single spaced mode by typing ._l_s _1. _2._4. _P_a_g_e _L_a_y_o_u_t A number of requests allow you to change the way the printed copy looks, sometimes called the _l_a_y_o_u_t of the out- put page. Most of these requests adjust the placing of "white space" (blank lines or spaces). In these Writing Papers with NROFF using -me USD:22-5 explanations, characters in italics should be replaced with values you wish to use; bold characters represent charac- ters which should actually be typed. The ._b_p request starts a new page. The request ._s_p _N leaves _N lines of blank space. _N can be omitted (meaning skip a single line) or can be of the form _N_i (for _N inches) or _N_c (for _N centimeters). For example, the input: .sp 1.5i My thoughts on the subject .sp leaves one and a half inches of space, followed by the line "My thoughts on the subject", followed by a single blank line. The ._i_n +_N request changes the amount of white space on the left of the page (the _i_n_d_e_n_t). The argument _N can be of the form +_N (meaning leave _N spaces more than you are already leaving), -_N (meaning leave less than you do now), or just _N (meaning leave exactly _N spaces). _N can be of the form _N_i or _N_c also. For example, the input: initial text .in 5 some text .in +1i more text .in -2c final text produces "some text" indented exactly five spaces from the left margin, "more text" indented five spaces plus one inch from the left margin (fifteen spaces on a pica typewriter), and "final text" indented five spaces plus one inch minus two centimeters from the margin. That is, the output is: initial text some text more text final text The ._t_i +_N (temporary indent) request is used like ._i_n +_N when the indent should apply to one line only, after which it should revert to the previous indent. For exam- ple, the input: 9 9 USD:22-6 Writing Papers with NROFF using -me .in 1i .ti 0 Ware, James R. The Best of Confucius, Halcyon House, 1950. An excellent book containing translations of most of Confucius' most delightful sayings. A definite must for anyone interested in the early foundations of Chinese philosophy. produces: Ware, James R. The Best of Confucius, Halcyon House, 1950. An excellent book containing translations of most of Confucius' most delightful sayings. A defin- ite must for anyone interested in the early foun- dations of Chinese philosophy. Text lines can be centered by using the ._c_e request. The line after the ._c_e is centered (horizontally) on the page. To center more than one line, use ._c_e _N (where _N is the number of lines to center), followed by the _N lines. If you want to center many lines but don't want to count them, type: .ce 1000 lines to center .ce 0 The ._c_e _0 request tells NROFF to center zero more lines, in other words, stop centering. All of these requests cause a break; that is, they always start a new line. If you want to start a new line without performing any other action, use ._b_r. _2._5. _U_n_d_e_r_l_i_n_i_n_g Text can be underlined using the ._u_l request. The ._u_l request causes the next input line to be underlined when output. You can underline multiple lines by stating a count of _i_n_p_u_t lines to underline, followed by those lines (as with the ._c_e request). For example, the input: .ul 2 Notice that these two input lines are underlined. will underline those eight words in NROFF. (In TROFF they will be set in italics.) _3. _D_i_s_p_l_a_y_s Displays are sections of text to be set off from the body of the paper. Major quotes, tables, and figures are types of Writing Papers with NROFF using -me USD:22-7 displays, as are all the examples used in this document. All displays except centered blocks are output single spaced. _3._1. _M_a_j_o_r _Q_u_o_t_e_s Major quotes are quotes which are several lines long, and hence are set in from the rest of the text without quote marks around them. These can be generated using the commands .(_q and .)_q to surround the quote. For example, the input: As Weizenbaum points out: .(q It is said that to explain is to explain away. This maxim is nowhere so well fulfilled as in the areas of computer programming,... .)q generates as output: As Weizenbaum points out: It is said that to explain is to explain away. This maxim is nowhere so well fulfilled as in the areas of computer programming,... _3._2. _L_i_s_t_s A _l_i_s_t is an indented, single spaced, unfilled display. Lists should be used when the material to be printed should not be filled and justified like normal text, such as columns of figures or the examples used in this paper. Lists are surrounded by the requests .(_l and .)_l. For example, type: Alternatives to avoid deadlock are: .(l Lock in a specified order Detect deadlock and back out one process Lock all resources needed before proceeding .)l will produce: Alternatives to avoid deadlock are: Lock in a specified order Detect deadlock and back out one process Lock all resources needed before proceeding 9 9 USD:22-8 Writing Papers with NROFF using -me _3._3. _K_e_e_p_s A _k_e_e_p is a display of lines which are kept on a sin- gle page if possible. An example of where you would use a keep might be a diagram. Keeps differ from lists in that lists may be broken over a page boundary whereas keeps will not. Blocks are the basic kind of keep. They begin with the request .(_b and end with the request .)_b. If there is not room on the current page for everything in the block, a new page is begun. This has the unpleasant effect of leav- ing blank space at the bottom of the page. When this is not appropriate, you can use the alternative, called _f_l_o_a_t_- _i_n_g _k_e_e_p_s. _F_l_o_a_t_i_n_g _k_e_e_p_s move relative to the text. Hence, they are good for things which will be referred to by name, such as "See figure 3". A floating keep will appear at the bot- tom of the current page if it will fit; otherwise, it will appear at the top of the next page. Floating keeps begin with the line .(_z and end with the line .)_z. For an exam- ple of a floating keep, see figure 1. The ._h_l request is used to draw a horizontal line so that the figure stands out from the text. _3._4. _F_a_n_c_i_e_r _D_i_s_p_l_a_y_s Keeps and lists are normally collected in _n_o_f_i_l_l mode, so that they are good for tables and such. If you want a display in fill mode (for text), type .(_l _F (Throughout this section, comments applied to .(_l also apply to .(_b and .(_z). This kind of display will be indented from both mar- gins. For example, the input: _____________________________________________ .(z .hl Text of keep to be floated. .sp .ce Figure 1. Example of a Floating Keep. .hl .)z Figure 1. Example of a Floating Keep. _____________________________________________ Writing Papers with NROFF using -me USD:22-9 .(l F And now boys and girls, a newer, bigger, better toy than ever before! Be the first on your block to have your own computer! Yes kids, you too can have one of these modern data processing devices. You too can produce beautifully formatted papers without even batting an eye! .)l will be output as: And now boys and girls, a newer, bigger, better toy than ever before! Be the first on your block to have your own computer! Yes kids, you too can have one of these modern data processing devices. You too can produce beautifully formatted papers without even batting an eye! Lists and blocks are also normally indented (floating keeps are normally left justified). To get a left- justified list, type .(_l _L. To get a list centered line- for-line, type .(_l _C. For example, to get a filled, left justified list, enter: .(l L F text of block .)l The input: .(l first line of unfilled display more lines .)l produces the indented text: first line of unfilled display more lines Typing the character _L after the .(_l request produces the left justified result: first line of unfilled display more lines Using _C instead of _L produces the line-at-a-time centered output: 9 9 USD:22-10 Writing Papers with NROFF using -me first line of unfilled display more lines Sometimes it may be that you want to center several lines as a group, rather than centering them one line at a time. To do this use centered blocks, which are surrounded by the requests .(_c and .)_c. All the lines are centered as a unit, such that the longest line is centered and the rest are lined up around that line. Notice that lines do not move relative to each other using centered blocks, whereas they do using the _C argument to keeps. Centered blocks are _n_o_t keeps, and may be used in con- junction with keeps. For example, to center a group of lines as a unit and keep them on one page, use: .(b L .(c first line of unfilled display more lines .)c .)b to produce: first line of unfilled display more lines If the block requests (.(_b and .)_b) had been omitted the result would have been the same, but with no guarantee that the lines of the centered block would have all been on one page. Note the use of the _L argument to .(_b; this causes the centered block to center within the entire line rather than within the line minus the indent. Also, the center requests must be nested _i_n_s_i_d_e the keep requests. _4. _A_n_n_o_t_a_t_i_o_n_s There are a number of requests to save text for later printing. _F_o_o_t_n_o_t_e_s are printed at the bottom of the current page. _D_e_l_a_y_e_d _t_e_x_t is intended to be a variant form of foot- note; the text is printed only when explicitly called for, such as at the end of each chapter. _I_n_d_e_x_e_s are a type of delayed text having a tag (usually the page number) attached to each entry after a row of dots. Indexes are also saved until called for explicitly. _4._1. _F_o_o_t_n_o_t_e_s Footnotes begin with the request .(_f and end with the request .)_f. The current footnote number is maintained automatically, and can be used by typing \**, to produce a Writing Papers with NROFF using -me USD:22-11 footnote number[1]. The number is automatically incre- mented after every footnote. For example, the input: .(q A man who is not upright and at the same time is presumptuous; one who is not diligent and at the same time is ignorant; one who is untruthful and at the same time is incompetent; such men I do not count among acquaintances.\** .(f \**James R. Ware, .ul The Best of Confucius, Halcyon House, 1950. Page 77. .)f .)q generates the result: A man who is not upright and at the same time is presumptuous; one who is not diligent and at the same time is ignorant; one who is untruthful and at the same time is incompetent; such men I do not count among acquaintances.[2] It is important that the footnote appears _i_n_s_i_d_e the quote, so that you can be sure that the footnote will appear on the same page as the quote. _4._2. _D_e_l_a_y_e_d _T_e_x_t Delayed text is very similar to a footnote except that it is printed when called for explicitly. This allows a list of references to appear (for example) at the end of each chapter, as is the convention in some disciplines. Use _\*# on delayed text instead of _\** as on footnotes. If you are using delayed text as your standard refer- ence mechanism, you can still use footnotes, except that you may want to reference them with special characters* rather than numbers. ____________________ 9 [1]Like this. [2]James R. Ware, _T_h_e _B_e_s_t _o_f _C_o_n_f_u_c_i_u_s, Halcyon House, 1950. Page 77. *Such as an asterisk. 9 USD:22-12 Writing Papers with NROFF using -me _4._3. _I_n_d_e_x_e_s An "index" (actually more like a table of contents, since the entries are not sorted alphabetically) resembles delayed text, in that it is saved until called for. How- ever, each entry has the page number (or some other tag) appended to the last line of the index entry after a row of dots. Index entries begin with the request .(_x and end with .)_x. The .)_x request may have a argument, which is the value to print as the "page number". It defaults to the current page number. If the page number given is an under- score ("_") no page number or line of dots is printed at all. To get the line of dots without a page number, type .)_x "", which specifies an explicitly null page number. The ._x_p request prints the index. For example, the input: .(x Sealing wax .)x .(x Cabbages and kings .)x _ .(x Why the sea is boiling hot .)x 2.5a .(x Whether pigs have wings .)x "" .(x This is a terribly long index entry, such as might be used for a list of illustrations, tables, or figures; I expect it to take at least two lines. .)x .xp generates: Sealing wax .......................................... 12 Cabbages and kings Why the sea is boiling hot ........................... 2.5a Whether pigs have wings .............................. This is a terribly long index entry, such as might be used for a list of illustrations, tables, or figures; I expect it to take at least two lines. ......................................... 12 The .(_x request may have a single character argument, specifying the "name" of the index; the normal index is _x. Thus, several "indices" may be maintained simultaneously Writing Papers with NROFF using -me USD:22-13 (such as a list of tables, table of contents, etc.). Notice that the index must be printed at the _e_n_d of the paper, rather than at the beginning where it will prob- ably appear (as a table of contents); the pages may have to be physically rearranged after printing. _5. _F_a_n_c_i_e_r _F_e_a_t_u_r_e_s A large number of fancier requests exist, notably requests to provide other sorts of paragraphs, numbered sec- tions of the form _1._2._3 (such as used in this document), and multicolumn output. _5._1. _M_o_r_e _P_a_r_a_g_r_a_p_h_s Paragraphs generally start with a blank line and with the first line indented. It is possible to get left- justified block-style paragraphs by using ._l_p instead of ._p_p, as demonstrated by the next paragraph. Sometimes you want to use paragraphs that have the _b_o_d_y indented, and the first line exdented (opposite of indented) with a label. This can be done with the ._i_p request. A word specified on the same line as ._i_p is printed in the margin, and the body is lined up at a prespecified position (normally five spaces). For example, the input: .ip one This is the first paragraph. Notice how the first line of the resulting paragraph lines up with the other lines in the paragraph. .ip two And here we are at the second paragraph already. You may notice that the argument to ._i_p appears in the margin. .lp We can continue text... produces as output: one This is the first paragraph. Notice how the first line of the resulting paragraph lines up with the other lines in the paragraph. two And here we are at the second paragraph already. You may notice that the argument to ._i_p appears in the margin. 9 9 USD:22-14 Writing Papers with NROFF using -me We can continue text without starting a new indented para- graph by using the ._l_p request. If you have spaces in the label of a ._i_p request, you must use an "unpaddable space" instead of a regular space. This is typed as a backslash character ("\") followed by a space. For example, to print the label "Part 1", enter: .ip "Part\ 1" If a label of an indented paragraph (that is, the argument to ._i_p) is longer than the space allocated for the label, ._i_p will begin a new line after the label. For example, the input: .ip longlabel This paragraph had a long label. The first character of text on the first line will not line up with the text on second and subsequent lines, although they will line up with each other. will produce: longlabel This paragraph had a long label. The first character of text on the first line will not line up with the text on second and subsequent lines, although they will line up with each other. It is possible to change the size of the label by using a second argument which is the size of the label. For example, the above example could be done correctly by saying: .ip longlabel 10 which will make the paragraph indent 10 spaces for this paragraph only. If you have many paragraphs to indent all the same amount, use the _n_u_m_b_e_r _r_e_g_i_s_t_e_r _i_i. For example, to leave one inch of space for the label, type: .nr ii 1i somewhere before the first call to ._i_p. Refer to the reference manual for more information. If ._i_p is used with no argument at all no hanging tag will be printed. For example, the input: 9 9 Writing Papers with NROFF using -me USD:22-15 .ip [a] This is the first paragraph of the example. We have seen this sort of example before. .ip This paragraph is lined up with the previous paragraph, but it has no tag in the margin. produces as output: [a] This is the first paragraph of the example. We have seen this sort of example before. This paragraph is lined up with the previous para- graph, but it has no tag in the margin. A special case of ._i_p is ._n_p, which automatically numbers paragraphs sequentially from 1. The numbering is reset at the next ._p_p, ._l_p, or ._s_h (to be described in the next section) request. For example, the input: .np This is the first point. .np This is the second point. Points are just regular paragraphs which are given sequence numbers automatically by the .np request. .pp This paragraph will reset numbering by .np. .np For example, we have reverted to numbering from one now. generates: (1) This is the first point. (2) This is the second point. Points are just regular paragraphs which are given sequence numbers automat- ically by the .np request. This paragraph will reset numbering by .np. (1) For example, we have reverted to numbering from one now. The ._b_u request gives lists of this sort that are identified with bullets rather than numbers. The para- graphs are also crunched together. For example, the input: 9 9 USD:22-16 Writing Papers with NROFF using -me .bu One egg yolk .bu One tablespoon cream or top milk .bu Salt, cayenne, and lemon juice to taste .bu A generous two tablespoonfuls of butter produces[3]: o+ One egg yolk o+ One tablespoon cream or top milk o+ Salt, cayenne, and lemon juice to taste o+ A generous two tablespoonfuls of butter _5._2. _S_e_c_t_i_o_n _H_e_a_d_i_n_g_s Section numbers (such as the ones used in this docu- ment) can be automatically generated using the ._s_h request. You must tell ._s_h the _d_e_p_t_h of the section number and a section title. The depth specifies how many numbers are to appear (separated by decimal points) in the section number. For example, the section number _4._2._5 has a depth of three. Section numbers are incremented in a fairly intuitive fashion. If you add a number (increase the depth), the new number starts out at one. If you subtract section numbers (or keep the same number) the final number is incremented. For example, the input: .sh 1 "The Preprocessor" .sh 2 "Basic Concepts" .sh 2 "Control Inputs" .sh 3 .sh 3 .sh 1 "Code Generation" .sh 3 produces as output the result: ____________________ 9 [3]By the way, if you put the first three ingredients in a a heavy, deep pan and whisk the ingredients madly over a medium flame (never taking your hand off the handle of the pot) until the mixture reaches the consistency of custard (just a minute or two), then mix in the butter off-heat, you will have a wonderful Hollandaise sauce. 9 Writing Papers with NROFF using -me USD:22-17 _1. _T_h_e _P_r_e_p_r_o_c_e_s_s_o_r _1._1. _B_a_s_i_c _C_o_n_c_e_p_t_s _1._2. _C_o_n_t_r_o_l _I_n_p_u_t_s _1._2._1. _1._2._2. _2. _C_o_d_e _G_e_n_e_r_a_t_i_o_n _2._1._1. You can specify the section number to begin by placing the section number after the section title, using spaces instead of dots. For example, the request: .sh 3 "Another section" 7 3 4 will begin the section numbered _7._3._4; all subsequent ._s_h requests will number relative to this number. There are more complex features which will cause each section to be indented proportionally to the depth of the section. For example, if you enter: .nr si _N each section will be indented by an amount _N. _N must have a scaling factor attached, that is, it must be of the form _N_x, where _x is a character telling what units _N is in. Common values for _x are _i for inches, _c for centimeters, and _n for _e_n_s (the width of a single character). For exam- ple, to indent each section one-half inch, type: .nr si 0.5i After this, sections will be indented by one-half inch per level of depth in the section number. For example, this document was produced using the request .nr si 3n at the beginning of the input file, giving three spaces of indent per section depth. Section headers without automatically generated numbers can be done using: .uh "Title" which will do a section heading, but will put no number on the section. 9 9 USD:22-18 Writing Papers with NROFF using -me _5._3. _P_a_r_t_s _o_f _t_h_e _B_a_s_i_c _P_a_p_e_r There are some requests which assist in setting up papers. The ._t_p request initializes for a title page. There are no headers or footers on a title page, and unlike other pages you can space down and leave blank space at the top. For example, a typical title page might appear as: .tp .sp 2i .(l C THE GROWTH OF TOENAILS IN UPPER PRIMATES .sp by .sp Frank N. Furter .)l .bp The request ._t_h sets up the environment of the NROFF processor to do a thesis, using the rules established at Berkeley. It defines the correct headers and footers (a page number in the upper right hand corner only), sets the margins correctly, and double spaces. The .+_c _T request can be used to start chapters. Each chapter is automatically numbered from one, and a heading is printed at the top of each chapter with the chapter number and the chapter name _T. For example, to begin a chapter called "Conclusions", use the request: .+c "CONCLUSIONS" which will produce, on a new page, the lines CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSIONS with appropriate spacing for a thesis. Also, the header is moved to the foot of the page on the first page of a chapter. Although the .+_c request was not designed to work only with the ._t_h request, it is tuned for the format acceptable for a PhD thesis at Berkeley. If the title parameter _T is omitted from the .+_c request, the result is a chapter with no heading. This can also be used at the beginning of a paper; for example, .+_c was used to generate page one of this document. Although papers traditionally have the abstract, table of contents, and so forth at the front of the paper, it is Writing Papers with NROFF using -me USD:22-19 more convenient to format and print them last when using NROFF. This is so that index entries can be collected and then printed for the table of contents (or whatever). At the end of the paper, issue the .++ _P request, which begins the preliminary part of the paper. After issuing this request, the .+_c request will begin a preliminary section of the paper. Most notably, this prints the page number restarted from one in lower case Roman numbers. .+_c may be used repeatedly to begin different parts of the front material for example, the abstract, the table of contents, acknowledgments, list of illustrations, etc. The request .++ _B may also be used to begin the bibliographic section at the end of the paper. For example, the paper might appear as outlined in figure 2. (In this figure, comments begin with the sequence _\".) _5._4. _E_q_u_a_t_i_o_n_s _a_n_d _T_a_b_l_e_s Two special UNIX programs exist to format special types of material. _E_q_n and _n_e_q_n set equations for the pho- totypesetter and NROFF respectively. _T_b_l arranges to print extremely pretty tables in a variety of formats. This document will only describe the embellishments to the stan- dard features; consult the reference manuals for those pro- cessors for a description of their use. The _e_q_n and _n_e_q_n programs are described fully in the document _T_y_p_e_s_e_t_t_i_n_g _M_a_t_h_e_m_a_t_i_c_s - _U_s_e_r'_s _G_u_i_d_e by Brian W. Kernighan and Lorinda L. Cherry. Equations are centered, and are kept on one page. They are introduced by the ._E_Q request and terminated by the ._E_N request. The ._E_Q request may take an equation number as an optional argument, which is printed vertically centered on the right hand side of the equation. If the equation becomes too long it should be split between two lines. To do this, type: .EQ (eq 34) text of equation 34 .EN C .EQ continuation of equation 34 .EN The _C on the ._E_N request specifies that the equation will be continued. The _t_b_l program produces tables. It is fully described (including numerous examples) in the document _T_b_l - _A _P_r_o_g_r_a_m _t_o _F_o_r_m_a_t _T_a_b_l_e_s by M. E. Lesk. Tables begin with the ._T_S request and end with the ._T_E request. Tables are normally kept on a single page. If you have a table USD:22-20 Writing Papers with NROFF using -me _________________________________________________________________ .th \" set for thesis mode .fo ''DRAFT'' \" define footer for each page .tp \" begin title page .(l C \" center a large block THE GROWTH OF TOENAILS IN UPPER PRIMATES .sp by .sp Frank Furter .)l \" end centered part .+c INTRODUCTION \" begin chapter named "INTRODUCTION" .(x t \" make an entry into index `t' Introduction .)x \" end of index entry text of chapter one .+c "NEXT CHAPTER" \" begin another chapter .(x t \" enter into index `t' again Next Chapter .)x text of chapter two .+c CONCLUSIONS .(x t Conclusions .)x text of chapter three .++ B \" begin bibliographic information .+c BIBLIOGRAPHY \" begin another `chapter' .(x t Bibliography .)x text of bibliography .++ P \" begin preliminary material .+c "TABLE OF CONTENTS" .xp t \" print index `t' collected above .+c PREFACE \" begin another preliminary section text of preface Figure 2. Outline of a Sample Paper _________________________________________________________________ which is too big to fit on a single page, so that you know it will extend to several pages, begin the table with the request ._T_S _H and put the request ._T_H after the part of the table which you want duplicated at the top of every page that the table is printed on. For example, a table defini- tion for a long table might look like: 9 9 Writing Papers with NROFF using -me USD:22-21 .TS H c s s n n n. THE TABLE TITLE .TH text of the table .TE _5._5. _T_w_o _C_o_l_u_m_n _O_u_t_p_u_t You can get two column output automatically by using the request ._2_c. This causes everything after it to be output in two-column form. The request ._b_c will start a new column; it differs from ._b_p in that ._b_p may leave a totally blank column when it starts a new page. To revert to single column output, use ._1_c. _5._6. _D_e_f_i_n_i_n_g _M_a_c_r_o_s A _m_a_c_r_o is a collection of requests and text which may be used by stating a simple request. Macros begin with the line ._d_e _x_x (where _x_x is the name of the macro to be defined) and end with the line consisting of two dots. After defining the macro, stating the line ._x_x is the same as stating all the other lines. For example, to define a macro that spaces 3 lines and then centers the next input line, enter: .de SS .sp 3 .ce .. and use it by typing: .SS Title Line (beginning of text) Macro names may be one or two characters. In order to avoid conflicts with names in -me, always use upper case letters as names. The only names to avoid are _T_S, _T_H, _T_E, _E_Q, and _E_N. _5._7. _A_n_n_o_t_a_t_i_o_n_s _I_n_s_i_d_e _K_e_e_p_s Sometimes you may want to put a footnote or index entry inside a keep. For example, if you want to maintain a "list of figures" you will want to do something like: 9 9 USD:22-22 Writing Papers with NROFF using -me .(z .(c text of figure .)c .ce Figure 5. .(x f Figure 5 .)x .)z which you may hope will give you a figure with a label and an entry in the index _f (presumably a list of figures index). Unfortunately, the index entry is read and inter- preted when the keep is read, not when it is printed, so the page number in the index is likely to be wrong. The solution is to use the magic string _\! at the beginning of all the lines dealing with the index. In other words, you should use: .(z .(c Text of figure .)c .ce Figure 5. \!.(x f \!Figure 5 \!.)x .)z which will defer the processing of the index until the fig- ure is output. This will guarantee that the page number in the index is correct. The same comments apply to blocks (with .(_b and .)_b) as well. _6. _T_R_O_F_F _a_n_d _t_h_e _P_h_o_t_o_s_e_t_t_e_r With a little care, you can prepare documents that will print nicely on either a regular terminal or when phototypeset using the TROFF formatting program. _6._1. _F_o_n_t_s A _f_o_n_t is a style of type. There are three fonts that are available simultaneously, Times Roman, Times Italic, and Times Bold, plus the special math font. The normal font is Roman. Text which would be underlined in NROFF with the ._u_l request is set in italics in TROFF. There are ways of switching between fonts. The requests ._r, ._i, and ._b switch to Roman, italic, and bold fonts respectively. You can set a single word in some font Writing Papers with NROFF using -me USD:22-23 by typing (for example): .i word which will set _w_o_r_d in italics but does not affect the sur- rounding text. In NROFF, italic and bold text is under- lined. Notice that if you are setting more than one word in whatever font, you must surround that word with double quote marks (`"') so that it will appear to the NROFF pro- cessor as a single word. The quote marks will not appear in the formatted text. If you do want a quote mark to appear, you should quote the entire string (even if a sin- gle word), and use _t_w_o quote marks where you want one to appear. For example, if you want to produce the text: "_M_a_s_t_e_r _C_o_n_t_r_o_l" in italics, you must type: .i """Master Control\|""" The _\| produces a very narrow space so that the "l" does not overlap the quote sign in TROFF, like this: "_M_a_s_t_e_r _C_o_n_t_r_o_l" There are also several "pseudo-fonts" available. The input: .(b .u underlined .bi "bold italics" .bx "words in a box" .)b generates underlined__________ _b_o_l_d _i_t_a_l_i_c_s _w_o_r_d_s _i_n _a _b_o_x In NROFF these all just underline the text. Notice that pseudo font requests set only the single parameter in the pseudo font; ordinary font requests will begin setting all text in the special font if you do not provide a parameter. No more than one word should appear with these three font requests in the middle of lines. This is because of the way TROFF justifies text. For example, if you were to issue the requests: 9 9 USD:22-24 Writing Papers with NROFF using -me .bi "some bold italics" and .bx "words in a box" in the middle of a line TROFF would produce _s_o_m_e _b_o_l_d _i_t_a_l_- _i_c_s and _w_o_r_d_s _i_n _a _b_o_x, which would look really lousy in TROFF. The second parameter of all font requests is set in the original font. For example, the font request: .b bold face generates "bold" in bold font, but sets "face" in the font of the surrounding text, resulting in: _b_o_l_dface. To set the two words _b_o_l_d and _f_a_c_e both in _b_o_l_d _f_a_c_e, type: .b "bold face" You can mix fonts in a word by using the special sequence _\_c at the end of a line to indicate "continue text processing"; this allows input lines to be joined together without a space between them. For example, the input: .u under \c .i italics generates under______i_t_a_l_i_c_s, but if we had typed: .u under .i italics the result would have been under_____ _i_t_a_l_i_c_s as two words. _6._2. _P_o_i_n_t _S_i_z_e_s The phototypesetter supports different sizes of type, measured in points. The default point size is 10 points for most text, 8 points for footnotes. To change the pointsize, type: .sz +_N where _N is the size wanted in points. The _v_e_r_t_i_c_a_l _s_p_a_c_i_n_g (distance between the bottom of most letters (the _b_a_s_e_l_i_n_e) between adjacent lines) is set to be proportional to the type size. 9 9 Writing Papers with NROFF using -me USD:22-25 These pointsize changes are _t_e_m_p_o_r_a_r_y!!! For example, to reset the pointsize of basic text to twelve point, use: .nr pp 12 .nr sp 12 .nr tp 12 to reset the default pointsize of paragraphs, section headers, and titles respectively. If you only want to set the names of sections in a larger pointsize, use: .nr sp 11 alone -- this sets section titles (e.g., _P_o_i_n_t _S_i_z_e_s above) in a larger font than the default. A single word or phrase can be set in a smaller pointsize than the surrounding text using the ._s_m request. This is especially convenient for words that are all capi- tals, due to the optical illusion that makes them look even larger than they actually are. For example: .sm UNIX prints as UNIX rather than UNIX. Warning: changing point sizes on the phototypesetter is a slow mechanical operation. On laser printers it may require loading new fonts. Size changes should be con- sidered carefully. _6._3. _Q_u_o_t_e_s It is conventional when using the typesetter to use pairs of grave and acute accents to generate double quotes, rather than the double quote character (`"'). This is because it looks better to use grave and acute accents; for example, compare "quote" to ``quote''. In order to make quotes compatible between the typesetter and terminals, you may use the sequences _\*(_l_q and _\*(_r_q to stand for the left and right quote respec- tively. These both appear as " on most terminals, but are typeset as `` and '' respectively. For example, use: \*(lqSome things aren't true even if they did happen.\*(rq to generate the result: "Some things aren't true even if they did happen." As a shorthand, the special font request: USD:22-26 Writing Papers with NROFF using -me .q "quoted text" will generate "quoted text". Notice that you must surround the material to be quoted with double quote marks if it is more than one word. _A_c_k_n_o_w_l_e_d_g_m_e_n_t_s I would like to thank Bob Epstein, Bill Joy, and Larry Rowe for having the courage to use the -me macros to produce non- trivial papers during the development stages; Ricki Blau, Pamela Humphrey, and Jim Joyce for their help with the documentation phase; peter kessler for numerous complaints years after I was "done" with this project, most accompanied by fixes (hence forc- ing me to fix several small bugs); and the plethora of people who have contributed ideas and have given support for the project. This document was NROFF'ed on August 25, 1987 and applies to ver- sion 2.27 of the -me macros. 9 9