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Problem-Solving Paradigms \hfill Juliet Bourne \\ #1 \hfill #2 \\}
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\myheader{Full Outline and Annotated Bibliography}{April 23, 1992}

\section*{Outline}

\begin{enumerate}
\item Introduction
\begin{enumerate}
\item Descriptive overview of the Space Shuttle program: NASA
encountered much opposition to the Space Transportation System that was
proposed at the end of the 1960s. Limited funding forced NASA to scrap
most of STS, leaving only the Space Shuttle.
\item Overview of Latour's principles and Trials of Strength: Latour
provides ways to examine science in action, or in this case, technology
in action. Trials of strength show the interactions between
organizations when some part of science or technology is in contention.
\item Overview of Computer-Supported Cooperative Work technology: Once
the interactions between humans and/or organizations are somewhat
formalized, computers can aid the cooperative and interactive work process.
\end{enumerate}
\item Trials of Strength
\begin{enumerate}
\item Conflicting goals
\begin{enumerate}
\item Principle: The help of others must be enrolled when faced with a
conflicting goal of an important ally.
\item Issue: It is not always possible to ``translate'' the goals of
others to suit one's own goals. Case in point: NASA unsuccessfully tried
to enroll the support of Congress, the President, and the Air Force. But
the Space Shuttle still managed to become a reality.
\item Problem: Congress was not interested in funding a new space
program since the Apollo program has been overexposed and racial and
social problems dominated the public's attention. As a result, funding
for NASA was very limited.
\end{enumerate}
\item Negotiations
\begin{enumerate}
\item Principle: ``The more science and technology have an esoteric
content, the further they extend outside.''
\item Issue: It is not the science and technology that extends outside,
but the need for money and approval that is associated with the science
and technology.
\item Problem: Given opposition in Congress and other scientists' desire
for unmanned space programs, NASA has to negotiate the structure of STS
to fit into what Congress is willing to accept. Thus, the concept of STS
begins to change.
\end{enumerate}
\item Compromises
\begin{enumerate}
\item Principle: ``The fate of facts and machines is in later users'
hands; their qualities are thus a consequence, not a cause, of
collective action.''
\item Issue: The fate of facts and machines can also be determined by
collective action before they are established as facts or machines.
\item Problem: Congress's reluctance to fund STS caused NASA to
radically alter its original concept and thus today we do not have a
fully reusable and efficient STS.
\end{enumerate}
\end{enumerate}
\item Computer-Supported Cooperative Work (CSCW) technology: Beyond the
second diagramming exercise; how CSCW could have helped NASA avoid the
many delays and screwups it encountered once it was is in the
development stage of the Shuttle. Technology refers to tools that have
been implemented or proposed. Application refers to when NASA could have
used it.
\begin{enumerate}
\item Collaborative design - Technology and Application
\item Structured conversations - Technology and Application
\item Group decision and negotiation - Technology and Application
\item Critiquing - Technology and Application
\end{enumerate}
\item Conclusions
\begin{enumerate}
\item Applicability of Latour's concepts to projects such as STS
\item Applicability of the Actor Model to modelling projects like STS
\item General applications of CSCW technology on collaborative projects
\item The Future of CSCW technology (my viewpoint/fantasy)
\end{enumerate}
\end{enumerate}

\section*{References}

Anderson, William L. ``Group Relations: Psychology and Computer
Supported Work'', {\it Proceedings of the Conference on Organizational
Computing Systems, 1991}. (SIGOIS Bulletin, Vol 12, No. 2,3)

Conklin, Jeff, and Michael Begeman. ``gIBIS: A Hypertext Tool for
Exploratory Policy Discussion'', {\it ACM Transactions on Information
Systems}, Vol 6, No. 4, October 1988.

Engelbart, Douglas. ``Knowledge-Domain Interoperability and an Open
Hyperdocument System'', {\it Proceedings of the 1990 Conference on
Computer-Supported Cooperative Work}.

Fischer, Gerhard, Andreas Lemke, Thomas Mastaglio, and Anders Morch.
``The Role of Critiquing in Cooperative Problem-Solving'', {\it ACM
Transactions on Information Systems}, Vol 9, No. 3, April 1991.

Flores, Fernando, Michael Graves, Brad Hartfield, and Terry Winograd.
``Computer Systems and the Design of Organizational Interaction'', {\it
ACM Transactions on Information Systems}, Vol 6, No. 2, April 1988.

Kaplan, Simon, Alan Carroll, and Kenneth MacGregor. ``Supporting
Collaborative Processes with {\it ConversationBuilder}'', {\it
Proceedings of the Conference on Organizational Computing Systems, 1991}.
(SIGOIS Bulletin, Vol 12, No. 2,3)

Lai, Kum-Yew, Thomas Malone, and Ken-Chiang Yu. ``Object Lens: A
`Spreadsheet' for Cooperative Work'',  {\it ACM Transactions on Information
Systems}, Vol 6, No. 4, October 1988.

Lee, Jintae. ``SYBIL: A Tool for Managing Group Decision Rationale'',
{\it Proceedings of the 1990 Conference on Computer-Supported
Cooperative Work}. 

Samarasan, Dhanesh. ``Collaborative Modeling and Negotiation'',
{\it Proceedings of the Conference on Office Information Systems, 1988}.
(SIGOIS Bulletin, Vol 9, No. 2,3)

Shepard, Allan, Niels Mayer, and Allan Kuchinsky. ``Strudel: An
Extensible Electronic Conversation Toolkit'', {\it Proceedings of the
1990 Conference on Computer-Supported Cooperative Work}.

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