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\title{ \hfill\break \hfill\break  The Roles of Nature and Nurture in
the Chinese Understanding of Human Potential}
\author{Introduction to Asian Religions - WC108RE\\ Martha H. Greenberg}
% April 7, 1995
\date{}
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\maketitle
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\def\hsun{Hs\"{u}n tzu}
\def\conf{Confucius}
\def\menc{Mencius}
\def\lao{Lao tzu}
\def\chang{Chuang Tzu}

% Discuss the roles of nature and nurture in the Chinese understanding of
% human potential.  Refer to \conf, \hsun, \menc, \lao, \chang

Two of the best known Chinese religions are Taoism and Confucianism,
which take different views on the roles of nature and environment.
Taoism believes in the inherent goodness of man, but that this knowledge
can easily be corrupted by knowledge.  In Confucianism, since \conf\
himself does not say much about the topic, the philosophers who follow
him do, often disagreeing on the subject.  One of his followers, \menc, allies
himself with the Taoist view, while the other, \hsun, believes that men
need good teachers and government to become good.


\section{Taoism}
\subsection{\lao}
\indent

According to \lao, the founder of Taoism, people should try to be like a
new-formed infant.  In the view of the {\em Tao-te Ching}, people start
out good, but knowledge makes them bad.  The Tao is the way of
``non-being'', and its aim is to stay untouched by the world around one
as much as possible.  Even the virtues of honor and propriety lead to
``greed, discrimination and strife.''\footnote{\lao, 103.}


\begin{quotation}
``When the great Tao declined,\\
The doctrine of humanity and righteousness arose.\\
When knowledge and wisdom appeared,\\
There emerged great hypocrisy.''\footnote{\lao, {\em The
Way of \lao\  (Tao-te Ching}, trans. Wing-Tsit Chan (New York: Macmillan
Publishing Company, 1963) 131.}
\end{quotation}

Both \lao\  and \conf\  ``emphasize the goodness of human nature and the 
potentiality of all to become sages.''\footnote{\lao, 19.}  However, in
\lao's ideal, the sage should not aim to increase his knowledge, but to
decrease it.  

\begin{quotation}
``One may know the whole world without going out of doors\\
One may see the Way of Heaven without looking through the windows.\\
The further one goes, the less one knows.\\
There the sage knows without going about,\\
Understands without seeing,\\
And accomplishes without any action.''\footnote{\lao, 183.}
\end{quotation}

It is by embracing ``non-being'' that people and governments are
virtuous.  \lao\ believes in the principle of {\em laissez-faire}, the
non-interference of government.  He thinks that if the number of 
rules and prohibitions are reduced, there will be less crime, and the
people will be happier and wealthier.  His ideal state is one in which
the people live a primitive and simple life, where their physical needs
are satisfied, but the government interferes so little that they are
barely aware that it exists.

\begin{quotation}
``Abandon sageliness and discard wisdom;\\
Then the people will benefit a hundredfold.\\
Abandon humanity and discard righteousness;\\
Then the people will return to filial piety and deep love.\\
Abandon skill and discard profit;\\
Then there will be no thieves or robbers.''\footnote{\lao, 132.}
\end{quotation}


\subsection{\chang}
\indent

\chang\ bases his work on that of \lao, but he further develops the
ideas in the {\em Tao-te Ching}.  According to \chang, one should aim to
be content with fate, because all fates are really the same.  He
stresses the unity of all things and all states in Tao.  For example,
\chang\ was found to be singing and beating a metal bowl when his wife
died, since this was just a change of form for her.

\begin{quotation}
``Do not try to develop what is natural to man; develop what is natural
to Heaven.  He who develops Heaven benefits life; he who develops man
injures life.''\footnote{\chang, {\em \chang: Basic Writings}, (New
York: Columbia University Press, 1968) 120.}
\end{quotation}

\chang\ agrees with \lao\ on the essential goodness of man, and how this
goodness is easily corrupted by knowledge.  In fact, he takes this even
further, saying that the mind should be totally empty, in order to absorb
Tao.  He thinks that real truth comes from passively observing the world
and nature, in which the Tao can be seen once distinctions are lost.

\begin{quotation}
``There were no distinctions of good and bad men.  Being all equally
without knowledge, their virtue could not go astray.  Being all equally
without evil desires, they were in a state of natural integrity, the
perfection of human existence.''\footnote{H. A. Giles, {\em \chang:
Mystic, Moralist and Social Reformer}, (Kelly and Walsh: Shanghai, 1889)
VIII.2.} 
\end{quotation}

\chang\ does not talk much about how to govern.  He is much more
concerned with the mysticism of the Tao.  However, he does clearly
advocate primitivism, and the overthrow of social institutions to return
to a more simple, natural life.

\section{Confucianism}
\subsection{\conf}
\indent

\conf\ spent most of his life as ``a private person who trained the sons
of gentlemen in the virtues proper to a member of the ruling
classes.''\footnote{\conf, {\em Analects of \conf}, trans. Arthur Waley
(New York: Vintage Books, 1989) 14.}  {\em Jun-zi}, which prior to the
times of \conf\ meant `the son of an aristocrat', is used by \conf\ as
the `perfect man', who is one of high moral stature.  \conf\ devoted
much of his writings to defining what is the perfect man.  However, he
does not say whether men are born perfect, or are born imperfect but are
capable of becoming perfect."


\begin{quotation}
``Tzu-kung said, Our Master's views concerning culture and the outward
insignia of goodness, we are permitted to hear; but about Man's nature
and the ways of Heaven he will not tell us anything at
all.''\footnote{\conf, 110.}
\end{quotation}

%Individuals have different levels of potential.

The problem of nature {\em vs.} nurture does not seem to have been a
crucial point of philosophy during the life of \conf, and he does not
discuss it much in the {\em Analects}.  One of the only relevant sayings
from the {\em Analects} is:
\begin{quotation}
``The Master said, By nature, near together; by practice far apart.''
\footnote{\conf, 209.} 
\end{quotation}
\noindent
According to the translator:
\begin{quotation}
``This proverbial saying has wide possibilities of application.  It here
presumably means that goodness is a matter of training and application
and not an inborn quality.''\footnote{\conf, 209.}
\end{quotation}

However, \conf\ also clearly thinks that good teachers are important for
the development of good character.  He also thinks that a strong and
paternalistic government is very important for a well-ordered state.
The {\em Analects} are directed to the rulers or future rulers of
states, and \conf\ feels that the reform of society begins with the
rulers.  If the rulers rectify their hearts, the rest of the society
will follow.  He does not believe in legislating away evil, but in
ridding it by the good example of the leaders.


\subsection{\menc}
\indent

\menc\ believes that all people are innately good.  However, this
goodness is very fragile, and can easily be undone by one's environment.
Good teachers and a good leader are necessary for people to remain good.
However, \menc\ believes that the rulers should rule by example, not
legislation.  He thinks that less authority is needed, since people are
basically good.


\begin{quotation}
``Suppose a man were, all of a sudden, to see a young child on the verge
of falling into a well.  He would certainly be moved to compassion, not
because he wanted to get in the good graces of the parents, nor because
he wished to win the praise of his fellow villagers or friends, not yet
because he disliked the cry of the child (II. A. 6).''\footnote{\menc, {\em
\menc}, trans. D.C. Lau, (Harnodsworsth: Penguin Books, 1970) 18.}
\end{quotation}

The ``all of the sudden'' in this quote refers to a spontaneous
reaction.  Even if the man does not act on this feeling, or later
regrets it, his immediate, spontaneous reaction is one of
compassion.  To \menc, this shows the innate goodness of mankind, since
the spontaneous reaction is the one that is truest to the real
character of the man.

``\menc\ and \hsun\ shared one common belief, and that is that all men
are capable of becoming sages.''\footnote{\menc, 18.}  However, \menc\
thinks that the natural tendency is for the nature of man to tend
towards goodness.
\begin{quotation}
``Human nature is good just as water seeks low ground.  There is no man
who is not good; there is no water that does not flow
downwards.''\footnote{\menc, 161.}
\end{quotation}


\subsection{\hsun}
\indent


%Held public office all his life.

\hsun\ believes that human nature is selfish but that it can
be perfected, especially through a teacher.  He thinks that perfection
lies in the past.  It used to be easy to find a good person or a good
teacher, but it is now much more difficult.  He believes that a more
authoritarian government is needed, since people are inherently bad.

\begin{quotation}
``Hence, any man who follows his nature and indulges his emotions will
inevitably become involved in wrangling and strife, will violate the
forms and rules of society, and will end as a criminal.  Therefore, man
must first be transformed by the instructions of a teacher and guided by
ritual principles, and only then will he be able to observe the dictates
of courtesy and humility, obey the forms and rules of society, and
achieve order.  It is obvious from this, then, that man's nature is
evil, and that his goodness is the result of conscious
activity.''\footnote{\hsun, {\em \hsun: Basic Writings},
trans. Burton Watson (New York: Columbia University Press, 1963) 157.} 
\end{quotation}

Regulation and legislation of human nature and desire is necessary in
order to control it.  In his view, merely leading by example will not
effect the necessary change.

\begin{quotation}
``\hsun\ believed that human nature, in concrete terms, consists
of certain factors which, in response to outside things, manifest
themselves as desires.  If every man gives full rein to his desires, the
result is certain to be conflict.''\footnote{\menc, 19.}
\end{quotation}

Human nature leads to desires; desires lead to conflict.  According
\hsun, conflict is always bad.  ``Whatever necessarily leads to
consequences that are bad is itself bad.''\footnote{\menc, 20.}  Since
human nature leads to bad results, human nature itself must be bad.
However, ``He draws a distinction between the desire for a thing and
positive action to seek it''\footnote{\menc, 20.}, and names this
morality.  Although one may never be able to stop desiring an object,
one can refrain from attempting to acquire said object.

\begin{quotation}
``If one's status does not entitle one to the possession of a thing,
even if the thing is in plentiful supply and one has the money, one is
still not permitted to possess it.''\footnote{\menc, 20.}
\end{quotation}

``For \hsun\, morality is a purely artificial way of
behavior.''\footnote{\menc, 21.}  The moral person reins in their
desires via rules or laws that are imposed from the outside, not from
any inner compulsion.

\begin{quotation}
``In respect to human nature the sage is the same as all other men and
does not surpass them; it is only in his conscious activity that he
differs from and surpasses other men.''\footnote{\hsun, 161.}
\end{quotation}

\begin{quotation}
``Therefore, in ancient times the sages, realizing that man's nature is
evil, that it is prejudiced and not upright, irresponsible and lacking
in order, for this reason established the authority of the ruler to
control it, elucidated ritual principles to transform it, set up laws
and standards to correct it, and meted out strict punishments to
restrain it.  As a result, all the world achieved order and conformed to
goodness.''\footnote{\hsun, 162-163.}
\end{quotation}

For \hsun, man is inherently bad, and can only be corrected by teachings
and rules.  \menc\ considers that the nature of man is good, but men are
easily influenced by their environments, so they need good teachers and
rulers.  \conf\ says that good teachers are important for good
character, but does not discuss the nature of man.  \lao\ and \chang\
believe in the goodness of man, and that knowledge spoils this goodness.  
Thus, a range of views on the subject of nature {\em vs.} nuture can be
seen in early Taoist and Confucist thought.

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